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Groundwater irrigation and its implications for water policy in semiarid countries: the Spanish experience

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Abstract

Over the last decades, groundwater irrigation has become commonplace in many arid and semiarid regions worldwide, including Spain. This is largely a consequence of the advances in drilling and pumping technologies, and of the development of Hydrogeology. Compared with traditional surface water irrigation systems, groundwater irrigation offers more reliable supplies, lesser vulnerability to droughts, and ready accessibility for individual users. Economic forces influence the groundwater irrigation sector and its development. In Spain's Mediterranean regions, abstraction costs often amount to a very small fraction of the value of crops. In the inner areas, groundwater irrigation supports a more stable flow of farm income than rainfed agriculture. The social (jobs/m3) and economic (€/m3) value of groundwater irrigation generally exceeds that of surface water irrigation systems. However, poor groundwater management and legal controversies are currently at the base of Spain's social disputes over water. A thorough and transparent assessment of the relative socio-economic value of groundwater in relation to surface water irrigation might contribute to mitigate or avoid potential future conflicts. Enforcement of the European Union's Water Framework Directive may deliver better groundwater governance and a more sustainable use.

Résumé

Depuis les dernières décennies, l’irrigation avec l’eau souterraine est devenue commune dans plusieurs régions arides et semi-arides, incluant l’Espagne. Ceci est largement une conséquence due à l’avancement aux technologies de forages et des pompages, et au développement de l’Hydrogéologie. Comparé avec des systèmes traditionnels d’irrigation utilisant l’eau de surface, l’irrigation avec l’eau souterraine offre une technique d’alimentation plus fiable, une vulnérabilité à la sécheresse moins grande, et une accessibilité plus aisée pour chaque utilisateur. Les forces économiques influencent le secteur de l’irrigation par l’eau souterraine et son développement. Dans les régions de l’Espagne Méditerranéenne, les coûts d’exploitation représentent toujours une petite fraction de la valeur des cultures. Dans les régions intérieures, l’irrigation par l’eau souterraine supporte une agriculture plus stable et continue qu’une agriculture reposant sur l’eau de pluie. La valeur sociale (emploi/m3) et économique (€/m3) de l’irrigation avec l’eau souterraine, excède généralement celle des systèmes d’irrigation avec l’eau de surface. Néanmoins, des gestions pauvres de l’eau souterraine et des controverses légales sont couramment à la base de disputes sociales sur l’eau. Un bilan transparent et minutieux des valeurs relatives socio-économiques de l’eau souterraine en relation avec l’eau de surface d’irrigation, devrait contribuer à éviter de potentiels et futurs conflits. Un renforcement de la Directive Cadre de l’Union Européenne devrait apporter une meilleure gouvernance et un usage plus durable.

Resumen

Durante las últimas décadas, la irrigación con agua subterránea se ha vuelto común en muchas regiones áridas y semiáridas alrededor del mundo, incluyendo a España. Ésta es en gran medida una consecuencia de los adelantos en las tecnologías de perforación y bombeo, y del desarrollo de la Hidrogeología. Comparada con los sistemas tradicionales de irrigación con agua superficial, la irrigación con agua subterránea ofrece suministros más fiables, la vulnerabilidad es menor a las sequías, y posee accesibilidad inmediata para los usuarios individuales. Las fuerzas económicas influyen el sector de irrigación con agua subterránea y su desarrollo. En las regiones mediterráneas de España, los costos de extracción suman a menudo una parte muy pequeña del valor de las cosechas. En las áreas internas, la irrigación con agua subterránea constituye un flujo más estable de ingresos para la granja, que la agricultura dependiente del agua lluvia. El valor social (empleos/m3) y económico (€/m3) de la irrigación con agua subterránea, generalmente excede a aquél con sistemas de irrigación de agua superficial. Sin embargo, la gestión pobre del agua subterránea y las controversias legales están actualmente en la base de las disputas sociales en España acerca del agua. Una evaluación completa y transparente del valor socio-económico relativo de agua subterránea respecto a la irrigación con agua superficial, podría contribuir mitigar o evitar los conflictos potenciales del futuro. La entrada en vigor del Marco Reglamentario de Agua de la Unión Europea, puede conllevar a una administración mejor del agua subterránea y a un uso más sostenible.

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Correspondence to Alberto Garrido.

Appendix 1. Modelling for the stochastic simulations

Appendix 1. Modelling for the stochastic simulations

Let f i (q i ) and g i (p i ) be the probability density functions of crop i's yields and market price. These functions have been estimated using @Risk software from observed yields and recorded prices. Assume a representative farm of the area devotes h i hectares to crop i. Stochastic net margin (NM) is defined by:

$$ {\rm NM} = \sum\limits_i {h_i } [(f_i (q_i )g_i (p_i ) - C_i - t^w W_i + EU_i ] $$

Where C i is the cost (per ha) for crop i; t w is the water price in (€/m3), W i is the regular water consumption of crop i per ha (mm); EUi represents subsidies (per ha) granted by the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy in 2002. The results plotted in Fig. 2 result from the simulation of the above model using the density functions f i (q i ) and g i (p i ), and other farm parameters obtained by the authors in field work.

Figure 3 reports the results of the simulations in the form of standard utility measures. Under stochastic economic returns, a utility function of the form shown in the text implies that individuals place relatively more importance on losses or adverse results than on favourable results, which is consistent with most people's preferences. The four plotted curves result from the combination of two scenarios (present EU Common Agricultural Policy subsidies vs. no subsidies) and (t w=0 €/m3 vs. t w=0.15 €/m3).

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Garrido, A., Martínez-Santos, P. & Llamas, M.R. Groundwater irrigation and its implications for water policy in semiarid countries: the Spanish experience. Hydrogeol J 14, 340–349 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-005-0006-z

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