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History of the use of nonaqueous media in electrochemistry

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Abstract

The use of nonaqueous media in electrochemistry is historically reviewed, though the description is based on my personal opinion and is not comprehensive. Here, “media” includes not only organic and inorganic solvents but also ionic liquids and supercritical fluids. The uses in polarography, voltammetry, potentiometry, and related techniques are discussed, but the use in conductimetry is excluded.

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Notes

  1. Among the aprotic solvents, those having relatively high permittivities (ε r ≥15 or 20) or large dipole moments (μ ≥2.5 D) are usually called “dipolar aprotic solvents.”

  2. The years when dipolar aprotic solvents became commercially available seem as follows: AN 1952, DMF early 1950s, DMSO 1953, PC 1960, sulfolane 1964, and HMPA 1965.

  3. By that time, the radical anion for ESR measurement was usually prepared by the reduction of its parent compound (R) with sodium metal, but the ESR signal obtained was often distorted by ion pair (Na+–R−) formation [144]. The electrolytic method by use of tetraalkylammonium salts as supporting electrolyte was free from such ion pair formation.

  4. Recently, Ag/Ag+ electrode in AN is sometimes used as a reference electrode by inserting it into other dipolar aprotic solvents. In this case, the influence of the LJP is much smaller than the case of aqueous reference electrode.

  5. Three cases occur when the sodium metal (Na) is thrown into solvents: (1) the case where Na is dissolved generating hydrogen gas, (2) the case when Na remains unchanged, and (3) the case when Na dissolves forming solvated electrons. The last occurs in ammonia (bp −33.4 °C), methylamine (bp −6 °C), and HMPA (bp 233 °C).

  6. The LJP estimated was 172 mV for DMSO, 174 mV for DMF, 93 mV for AN, and 25 mV for MeOH, with the water side more negative.

  7. All research groups in [68–72] assumed the existence of the three components, similar to us, but they considered that all of the three were diffusion potentials, which are related to the ionic transfer across the junction between different solvents. According to our studies, this is not correct as described below, i.e., component (c) is a dipole potential.

  8. The actual value and the theoretical value agree to each other at immiscible junctions, at which the interphase region varies not gradually but abruptly.

  9. The magnitude of component (a) varies with the variation in c l/c 2, and for its variation from 100 mM/1 mM to 1 mM/100 mM, it varied between ca. +40 mV and ca. −40 mV. The actual value of component (b) varies with the species MX: the largest variations were ca. 354 mV at H2O|PC, 254 mV at H2O|AN, and 192 mV at H2O|DMF between MX of NaPh4B and Bu4NCl and 172 mV at H2O/DMSO between MX of Me4NClO4 and LiCl. Component (b) may be the biggest among the three components. Component (c) varies with S1/S2: the value was 122 mV for H2O/DMF and H2O/DMSO, 44 mV for H2O/AN and 30 mV for H2O/PC (at c 1 = c 2 = 1 mM), as estimated under the assumptions that the values of component (c) at H2O/NB and AN/aprotic solvents equal zero.

  10. There are protic ILs too, the cations R+ of which being primary, secondary, and tertiary ammonium cations, 1-alkylimidazolium cations, 1-alkyl-2-alkylimidazolium cations, etc.

Abbreviations

AN:

Acetonitrile

γ-BL:

γ-Butyrolactone

BMIm:

1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium

BP:

N-Butylpyridinium

DME:

Dropping mercury electrode

DMF:

N,N-Dimethylformamide

DMSO:

Dimethyl sulfoxide

EDLC:

Electrochemical double-layer capacitor

EMIm:

1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium

ESR:

Electron spin resonance

ET:

Electron transfer

EtOH:

Ethanol

EV:

Electric vehicle

HEV:

Hybrid electric vehicle

HMDE:

Hanging mercury drop electrode

HMPA:

Hexamethylphosphoric triamide

IL:

Ionic liquid

ISFET:

Ion-selective field effect transistor

ITIES:

Interfaces between two immiscible electrolyte solutions

LJP:

Liquid junction potential

LUMO:

Lowest unoccupied molecular orbital

MeOH:

Methanol

MMIm:

1,3-Dimethylimidazolium

NB:

Nitrobenzene

PC:

Propylene carbonate

scCO2 :

Supercritical carbon dioxide

SCF:

Supercritical fluid

scW:

Supercritical water

UME:

Ultramicroelectrode

W:

Water

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  1. Kosuke Izutsu

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    Kosuke Izutsu

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Izutsu, K. History of the use of nonaqueous media in electrochemistry. J Solid State Electrochem 15, 1719–1731 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10008-010-1246-y

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