Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

User eXperience Laddering with preschoolers: unveiling attributes and benefits of cuddly toy interfaces

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Personal and Ubiquitous Computing Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In this paper, we suggest Laddering as a promising empirical method to evaluate the impact of tangibility on young children’s user experiences. In the first part of this paper, we explain what Laddering is. We explicate the conceptual foundations of Laddering, discuss the typical Laddering interviewing technique and focus on the Laddering data treatment. Then, we argue why Laddering might be especially valuable in a context of UX evaluations of tangible and embedded interfaces with children. In the second part of this paper, we present a case study, comparing three cuddly toy interfaces, and we demonstrate how Laddering can be used with preschoolers to explain preferences between these tangible interfaces. The case study confirms that Laddering can contribute to verifying the assumed benefits of tangibility. Laddering revealed how specific cuddly toy attributes as opposed to non-cuddly toy attributes led to specific benefits for the young participants. However, contrary to research findings from developmental literature, only children aged 5 years and older proved to be capable of performing as full Laddering respondents.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. In fact, Means-End Theory closely parallels Expectancy-Value theories, as put forward by Fishbein and Ajzen, and is built upon by communication media scholars via Uses &Gratifications paradigm. Readers that would like to read more about the similarities between these models, especially with relation to ‘likeability for preschoolers’ are referred to [14].

  2. None of the children realized that a human Wizard steered their interaction, a pilot study revealed that even adults did not detect this.

  3. http://www.ladderux.org.

References

  1. Norman D (2007) The next UI breakthrough, part 2: physicality. Interactions 14:46–47

    MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  2. Fitzmaurice GW, Ishii H, Buxton WAS (1995) Bricks laying the foundations for graspable user interfaces. Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems. ACM Press/Addison-Wesley Publishing Co, Denver, Colorado, USA, pp 442–449

    Google Scholar 

  3. Ullmer B, Ishii H (2001) Emerging frameworks for tangible user interfaces. In: Caroll BW (ed) Human-computer interaction in the new millennium. Addison-Wesley, MA, pp 579–601

    Google Scholar 

  4. Dourish P (2001) Where the action is: the foundations of embodied interaction. MIT Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  5. Djajadiningrat T, Wensveen S, Frens J, Overbeeke K (2004) Tangible products: redressing the balance between appearance and action. Pers Ubiquitous Comput 8:294–309

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Wensveen SAG, Djajadiningrat JP, Overbeeke CJ (2004) Interaction frogger: a design framework to couple action and function through feedback and feedforward. Presented at the, Cambridge, MA, USA

  7. Hornecker E, Buur J (2006) Getting a grip on tangible interaction: a framework on physical space and social interaction. Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems. ACM, Montréal, Québec, Canada, pp 437–446

    Google Scholar 

  8. Antle AN (2007) The CTI framework: informing the design of tangible systems for children. Proceedings of the 1st international conference on tangible and embedded interaction. ACM, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, pp 195–202

    Google Scholar 

  9. Price S, Rogers Y, Scaife M, Stanton D, Neale H (2003) Using ‘tangibles’ to promote novel forms of playful learning. Interact Comput 15:169–185

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Marshall P, Price S, Rogers Y (2003) Conceptualising tangibles to support learning. Presented at the, Preston, England

  11. Xie L, Antle AN, Motamedi N (2008) Are tangibles more fun?: comparing children’s enjoyment and engagement using physical, graphical and tangible user interfaces. Presented at the, Bonn, Germany

  12. Marshall P (2007) Do tangible interfaces enhance learning? Proceedings of the 1st international conference on tangible and embedded interaction. ACM, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, pp 163–170

    Book  Google Scholar 

  13. Gutman J (1982) A means-end chain model based on consumer categorization processes. J Mark 46:60–72

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Vanden Abeele V, Zaman B (2008) The extended likeability framework: a theoretical framework for and a practical case of designing likeable media applications for preschoolers. Advances in human-computer interaction. p 11

  15. Reynolds T, Gutman J (2001) Laddering theory, method, analysis, and interpretation. In: Reynolds T, Olsen J (eds) Understanding consumer decision making: the means-end approach to marketing and advertising strategy. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, London, pp 25–52

    Google Scholar 

  16. Olson JC, Reynolds TJ (1983) Understanding consumers’ cognitive structures: implications for advertizing strategy. Advertising and consumer psychology. Lexington Books, Lexington, pp 77–90

    Google Scholar 

  17. Grunert KG, Beckmann SC, Sorensen E (1996) Means-end chains and laddering: an inventory of problems and an agenda for research. understanding consumer decision-making: the means-end approach to marketing and advertising strategy. Lawrence Earlbaum, Mahwah, pp 63–90

    Google Scholar 

  18. Reynolds T, Gutman J (1988) Laddering theory, method, analysis, and interpretation

  19. Bech-Larsen T (2000) Model-based development and testing of advertising messages â€. A comparative study of two campaign proposals based on the Meccas model and a conventional approach. University of Aarhus, Aarhus School of Business, The MAPP Centre

  20. Grunert KG, Bech-Larsen T (2005) Explaining choice option attractiveness by beliefs elicited by the laddering method. J Econ Psychol 26:223–241

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Bech-Larsen T, Nielsen NA (1999) A comparison of five elicitation techniques for elicitation of attributes of low involvement products. J Econ Psychol 20:315–341

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Reynolds TJ, Dethloff C, Westberg SJ (2001) Advancements in laddering. In: Reynolds TJ, Olson JC (eds) Understanding consumer decision-making: the means-end approach to marketing and advertising strategy. Lawrence Elbaum Associates, New Jersey, pp 91–118

    Google Scholar 

  23. Kelly GA (1963) A theory of personality: the psychology of personal constructs. W.W.Norton & Co, NY

    Google Scholar 

  24. Hassenzahl M, Trautmann T (2001) Analysis of web sites with the repertory grid technique. CHI ‘01 extended abstracts on Human factors in computing systems. ACM, Washington, pp 167–168

    Book  Google Scholar 

  25. Karapanos E, Martens J (2008) The quantitative side of the repertory grid technique: some concerns. Proceedings of the workshop now let’s do it in practice: user experience evaluation methods in product development. Florence, Italy

    Google Scholar 

  26. Hawley M (2007) The repertory grid: eliciting user experience comparisons in the customer’s voice: UXmatters. http://www.zotero://attachment/613/

  27. Fallman D (2004) Integrating user experience into the design process with the repertory grid technique: some preliminary notes. Presented at the

  28. Hassenzahl M (2004) The thing and I: understanding the relationship between user and product. In: Blythe M, Overbeeke K, Monk A, Wright P (eds) Funology: from usability to enjoyment. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell, pp 31–41

    Google Scholar 

  29. Obrist M, Roto V, Väänänen-Vainio-Mattila K (2009) User experience evaluation: do you know which method to use? Proceedings of the 27th international conference extended abstracts on Human factors in computing systems. ACM, Boston, pp 2763–2766

    Google Scholar 

  30. Roto V, Väänänen-Vainio-Mattila K, Law E, Vermeeren A (2009) User experience evaluation methods in product development (UXEM’09). Human-computer interaction—INTERACT 2009. pp 981–982

  31. Väänänen-Vainio-Mattila K, Roto V, Hassenzahl M (2008) Now let’s do it in practice: user experience evaluation methods in product development. CHI ‘08 extended abstracts on Human factors in computing systems. ACM, Florence, Italy, pp 3961–3964

    Google Scholar 

  32. Law E, Roto V, Hassenzahl M, Vermeeren A, Kort J (2009) Understanding, scoping and defining user experience: a survey approach. Proceedings of the 27th international conference on human factors in computing systems. ACM Press, Boston, pp 719–728

    Google Scholar 

  33. Roto V, Vaananen-Vainio-Mattila, Law E, Vermeeren A (2009) User experience evaluation methods in product development (UXEM’09) Lecture Notes In Computer Science, vol 5727. ACM Press, NY, pp 981–982

    Google Scholar 

  34. Law E, Roto V, Vermeeren AP, Kort J, Hassenzahl M (2008) Towards a shared definition of user experience. CHI ‘08 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems. ACM, Florence, Italy, pp 2395–2398

    Google Scholar 

  35. Hassenzahl M (2004) The thing and I: understanding the relationship between user and product. Funology, from usability to enjoyment. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp 31–42

    Google Scholar 

  36. Cockton G (2008) Designing worth—connecting preferred means to desired ends. Interactions 15:54–57

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Cockton G (2004) Value-centred HCI. Proceedings of the third Nordic conference on human-computer interaction. ACM, Tampere, Finland, pp 149–160

    Book  Google Scholar 

  38. Cockton G (2004) From quality in use to value in the world. CHI ‘04 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems. ACM, Vienna, Austria, pp 1287–1290

    Book  Google Scholar 

  39. International organization for standardization: ISO 9241-210:2010—Ergonomics of human-system interaction—Part 210: human-centred design for interactive systems, http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=52075

  40. Hassenzahl M (2008) Aesthetics in interactive products: correlates and consequences of beauty. In: Schifferstein H, Hekkert P (eds) Product experience. Elsevier, New York, pp 287–302

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  41. Kelly G (1955) The psychology of personal constructs. Norton, New York

    Google Scholar 

  42. Fishbein M, Ajzen I (1975) Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: an introduction to theory and research. Addison-Wesley, MA

    Google Scholar 

  43. Sluis-Thiescheffer W, Bekker T, Eggen B (2007) Comparing early design methods for children. Proceedings of the 6th international conference on Interaction design and children. ACM, Aalborg, Denmark, pp 17–24

    Book  Google Scholar 

  44. Druin A (1999) Cooperative inquiry: developing new technologies for children with children. Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems: the CHI is the limit. ACM, Pittsburgh, pp 592–599

    Book  Google Scholar 

  45. Sluis-Theischeffer W, Bekker T, Eggen B (2009) Adding user creativity to the UX toolbox: Exploring the use of Creative UX methods. Presented at the 13th CHI Netherlands, The Netherlands

  46. Barendregt W (2006) Evaluating fun and usability in computer games with children. Technische Universiteit Eindhoven

  47. Ericsson KA, Simon HA (1993) Protocol analysis: verbal reports as data. The MIT Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  48. Als BS, Jensen JJ, Skov MB (2005) Comparison of think-aloud and constructive interaction in usability testing with children. Proceeding of the 2005 conference on Interaction design and children—IDC ‘05. Boulder, Colorado, pp 9–16

    Google Scholar 

  49. Höysniemi J, Hämäläinen P, Turkki L (2003) Using peer tutoring in evaluating the usability of a physically interactive computer game with children. Interact Comput 15:203–225

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Kesteren IEHV, Bekker MM, Vermeeren APOS, Lloyd PA (2003) Assessing usability evaluation methods on their effectiveness to elicit verbal comments from children subjects. Proceedings of the 2003 conference on Interaction design and children. ACM, Preston, pp 41–49

    Google Scholar 

  51. Read JC, Markopoulos P (2008) Lifelong interactions. Understanding children’s interactions. Interactions 15:26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Read JC (2008) Validating the fun toolkit: an instrument for measuring children’s opinions of technology. Cogn Tech Work 10:119–128

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. ISO 9241-210:2010—Ergonomics of human-system interaction—Part 210: human-centred design for interactive systems, http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=52075

  54. Vanden Abeele V, Zaman B, Vanden Abeele M (2008) The unlikeability of a cuddly toy interface: an experimental study of preschoolers’ likeability and usability of a 3D game played with a cuddly toy versus a keyboard. In: Markopoulos et al. (eds) Fun and games 2008, LNCS 5294. Springer, Berlin, pp 118–131

  55. Lemish D (2007) Preschoolers, media impact on developmental needs of. In: Arnett JJ (ed) Encyclopaedia of children, adolescents, and the media. Sage, Thousand Oaks, pp 407–410

    Google Scholar 

  56. Rice F (1998) Human development: a life-span approach. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River

    Google Scholar 

  57. Bukatko D (2001) Child development: a thematic approach. Houghton Mifflin, Boston

    Google Scholar 

  58. Irwin LG (2005) Interviewing young children: explicating our practices and dilemmas. Qual Health Res 15:821–831

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Bretherton I, Beeghly M (1982) Talking about internal states: the acquisition of an explicit theory of mind. Dev Psychol 18:906–921

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Dunn J, Bretherton I, Munn P (1987) Conversations about feeling states between mothers and their young children. Dev Psychol 23:132–139

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Hickling A, Wellman H (2001) The emergence of children’s causal explanations and theories: evidence from everyday conversation. Dev Psychol 37:668–683

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Miller P, Aloise P (1989) Young children’s understanding of the psychological causes of behavior: a review. Child Dev 60:257–285

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Berk L (1999) Development through the lifespan, 3rd edn. Allyn & Bacon, Boston

    Google Scholar 

  64. Bidell T, Fisher K (1992) Beyond the stage debate: action, structure, and variability in Piagetian theory and research. In: Sternberg R, Berg C (eds) Intellectual development. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 100–140

    Google Scholar 

  65. Johnson MP, Wilson A, Blumberg B, Kline C, Bobick A (1999) Sympathetic interfaces: using a plush toy to direct synthetic characters. Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems: the CHI is the limit. ACM, Pittsburgh, pp 152–158

    Google Scholar 

  66. Paiva A, Andersson G, Höök K, Mourão D, Costa M, Martinho C (2002) SenToy in FantasyA: designing an affective sympathetic interface to a computer game. Pers Ubiquitous Comput 6:378–389

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Zaman B, Vanden Abeele V (2007) How to measure the likeability of tangible interaction with preschoolers. Proceedings of CHI.NL. Infotec Nederland BV Woerden. Eindhoven, The Netherlands, pp 57–59

    Google Scholar 

  68. Andersson G, Höök K, Mourão D, Paiva A, Costa M (2002) Using a Wizard of Oz study to inform the design of SenToy. Proceedings of the 4th conference on designing interactive systems: processes, practices, methods, and techniques. ACM, London, England, pp 349–355

    Google Scholar 

  69. Höysniemi J, Hämäläinen P, Turkki L (2004) Wizard of Oz prototyping of computer vision based action games for children. Proceedings of the 2004 conference on Interaction design and children: building a community. ACM, Maryland, pp 27–34

    Google Scholar 

  70. Zaman B (2009) Introducing a pairwise comparison scale for UX evaluations with preschoolers. Human-computer interaction—INTERACT 2009. pp 634–637

  71. LadderUX on line and freely available software tool for UX laddering, www.ladderux.org

  72. Pieters R, Baumgartner H, Allen D (1995) A means-end chain approach to consumer goal structures. Int J Res Mark 12:227–244

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Vanden Abeele V, Zaman B (2009) Laddering the user experience! User experience methods, interact 2009. Uppsala, Sweden

  74. Reynolds TJ, Olson JC (2001) Understanding consumer decision making

  75. Zaman B (2007) Introducing contextual laddering to evaluate the likeability of games with children. Cogn Tech Work 10:107–117

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We like to thank all preschoolers who participated in the Laddering study. Furthermore, we like to thank the animators of the summer day camp Kattestroof and the community of Bertem, JITSOC for granting us the permission to conduct this research on their playgrounds. We like to thank master students Leonard Van Domselaer (for creating the penguin) and especially Michiel Van Minnebrugge (for his wizardly patience). We also like to thank the under or above the radar work of the TOEWIE team, namely technical artists Jelle Husson and Jeroen Wauters for kakatoewie and kangaroo, Maarten Vanoverveldt and Luc Geurts for the future signal processing and Frederik Windey for the aid in the game development… and finally Stef Desmet for his meticulous reading.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. e-Media Lab, GROUP T, Leuven Engineering College/CUO (Association KULeuven), Vesaliusstraat 13, 3000, Leuven, Belgium

    Vero Vanden Abeele

  2. Centre for User Experience Research (CUO), Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Parkstraat 45 Bus 3605, 3000, Leuven, Belgium

    Bieke Zaman & Dirk De Grooff

  3. Future Health Department, IBBT-K.U.Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 10 bus 2446, 3001, Leuven, Belgium

    Bieke Zaman & Dirk De Grooff

Authors
  1. Vero Vanden Abeele
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Bieke Zaman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Dirk De Grooff
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Vero Vanden Abeele.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Vanden Abeele, V., Zaman, B. & De Grooff, D. User eXperience Laddering with preschoolers: unveiling attributes and benefits of cuddly toy interfaces. Pers Ubiquit Comput 16, 451–465 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00779-011-0408-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00779-011-0408-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation