Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Morphologic evolution of the Central Andes of Peru

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
International Journal of Earth Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In this paper, we analyze the morphology of the Andes of Peru and its evolution based on the geometry of river channels, their bedrock profiles, stream gradient indices and the relation between thrust faults and morphology. The rivers of the Pacific Basin incised Mesozoic sediments of the Marañon thrust belt, Cenozoic volcanics and the granitic rocks of the Coastal Batholith. They are mainly bedrock channels with convex upward shapes and show signs of active ongoing incision. The changes in lithology do not correlate with breaks in slope of the channels (or knick points) such that the high gradient indices (K) with values between 2,000–3,000 and higher than 3,000 suggest that incision is controlled by tectonic activity. Our analysis reveals that many of the ranges of the Western Cordillera were uplifted to the actual elevations where peaks reach to 6,000 m above sea level by thrusting along steeply dipping faults. We correlate this uplift with the Quechua Phase of Neogene age documented for the Subandean thrust belt. The rivers of the Amazonas Basin have steep slopes and high gradient indices of 2,000–3,000 and locally more than 3,000 in those segments where the rivers flow over the crystalline basement of the Eastern Cordillera affected by vertical faulting. Gradient indices decrease to 1,000–2,000 within the east-vergent thrust belt of the Subandean Zone. Here a correlation between breaks in river channel slopes and location of thrust faults can be established, suggesting that the young, Quechua Phase thrust faults of the Subandean thrust belt, which involve Neogene sediments, influenced the channel geometry. In the eastern lowlands, these rivers become meandering and flow parallel to anticlines that formed in the hanging wall of Quechua Phase thrust faults, suggesting that the river courses were actively displaced outward into the foreland.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abbühl LM, Norton KP, Jansen JD, Schlunegger F, Adahan A, Possner G (in press) Erosion rates and mechanisms of knickzone retreat inferred from 10Be measured across strong climate gradients on the northern and central Andes Western Escarpment. Earth Surf Process Landf

  • Atherton M, Webb S (1989) Volcanic facies, structure and geochemistry of the marginal basin rocks of Central Peru. J S Am Earth Sci 2(3):241–261

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barazangi M, Isacks BL (1976) Spatial distribution of earthquakes and subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath South America. Geology 4:686–692

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berger A, Rosenberg C, Schmid SM (1996) Ascent, emplacement and exhumation of the Bergell pluton within the Southern Steep Belt of the Central Alps. Schweizerische Mineral Petrograph Mitt 76:357–382

    Google Scholar 

  • Bishop P, Hoey TB, Jansen JD, Artza IL (2005) Knickpoint recession rates and catchment area: the case of uplifted rivers in E Scotland. Earth Surf Process Landf 30:767–778

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burbank DW, Anderson RS (2001) Tectonic geomorphology. Blackwell, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Burnett AW, Schumm SA (1983) Active tectonics and river response in Louisiana and Mississippi. Science 222:455–474

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cobbing EJ (1985) The tectonic setting of the Peruvian Andes. In: Pitcher MP, Atherton WS, Cobbing EJ, Beckinsale RB (eds) Magmatism at a plate edge: The Peruvian Andes. Blackie, Glasgow, pp 3–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldrick G, Bishop P (1995) Differentiating the roles of lithology and uplift in the steepening of bedrock river long profiles: an example from southeastern Australia. J Geol 103:27–221

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldrick G, Bishop P (2007) Regional analysis of bedrock stream long profiles: Evaluation of Hack’s SL form and formulation and assessment of an alternative (the DS form). Earth Surf Process Landf 32:649–671

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez L (2011) Structure and morphology of the Central Andes of Peru: evolution of a mountain belt. PhD thesis, University of Bern

  • Gonzalez L, Pfiffner OA (in prep) Structure of the Central Peruvian Andes. S Am J Earth Sci

  • Gregory-Wodzicki KM (2000) Uplift history of the Central and Northern Andes: a review. Geol Soc Am Bull 112(7):1092–1105

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hack JT (1973) Stream-profile analysis and stream-gradient index. J Res US Geol Survey 1:421–429

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaillard E, Soler P (1996) Cretaceous to early Paleogene tectonic evolution of the northern Central Andes (0–18°S) and its relation to geodynamics. Tectonophysics 259:47–53

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jaillard E, Hérail G, Monfret T, Díaz-Martínez E, Baby P, Lavenu A, Dumont JF (2000) Tectonic evolution of the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and northernmost Chile. In: Cordani UG, Milani EJ, Thomaz A, Campos DA (eds) Tectonic evolution of South America, 31st international geological congress, Rio de Janeiro, pp 481–559

  • Keller EA, Pinter N (1996) Active tectonics: earthquake, uplift, and landscape. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, p 338

    Google Scholar 

  • Keller EA, Rockwell TK (1984) Tectonic geomorphology, quaternary chronology and paleoseismicity. In: Costa JE, Fleisher PJ (eds) Development and applications of geomorphology. Springer, Berlin, pp 203–239

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kühni A, Pfiffner OA (2001) The relief of the Swiss Alps and adjacent areas and its relation to lithology and structure: topographic analysis from a 250-m DEM. Geomorphology 41:285–307

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leopold L, Maddok T (1953) The hydraulic geometry of stream channels and some physiographic implications. US Geol Surv 252:1–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindo R, Dorbath C, Cisternas A, Dorbath L, Ocola L, Morales M (1992) Subduction geometry in central Peru from a microseismicity survey: first results. Tectonophysics 205:23–29

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mackin JH (1948) The concept of a graded river. Geol Soc Am Bull 59:463–512

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKeown FA, Jones-Cecil M, Askew BL, McGrath MB (1988) Analysis of stream-profile data and inferred tectonic activity, Eastern Ozark Mountains Region. Geol Surv Bull 1807:1–39

    Google Scholar 

  • McNulty B, Farber F (2002) Active detachment faulting above the Peruvian flat slab. Geology 30:567–570

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McNulty BA, Farber DL, Wallace G, Lopez R (1998) Role of plate kinematics and plate-slip-vector partitioning in continental magmatic arcs: evidence from the Cordillera Blanca, Peru. Geology 26:827–830

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mégard F (1978). Etude géologique des Andes du Pérou central: Contribution à l’étude géologique des Andes n° 1. ORSTOM Mém 86, Paris, p 310

  • Mégard F (1984) The Andean orogenic period and its major structures in central and northern Peru. J Geol Soc Lond 1:893–900

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nott J, Young R, McDougall I (1996) Wearing down, wearing back, and gorge extension in the long-term denudation of a highland mass: quantitative evidence from the Shoalhaven catchment, southeast Australia. J Geol 104:224–232

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pardo-Casas F, Molnar P (1987) Relative motion of the Nazca (Farallon) and South American plates since Late Cretaceous time. Tectonics 6:233–248

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petford N, Atherton MP (1992) Granitoid emplacement and deformation along a major crustal lineament: the Cordillera Blanca, Peru. Tectonophysics 205:17–185

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramírez-Herrera MT (1998) Geomorphic assessment of active tectonics in the Acambay Graben, Mexican Volcanic Belt. Earth Surf Proces Landf 23:317–332

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reed JC (1981) Disequilibrium profile of the Potomac River near Washington, DC—a result of lowered base level or Quaternary tectonics along the Fall Line. Geology 9:445–450

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rousse S, Gilder S, Farber F, McNulty B, Patriat P, Torres V, Sempere T (2003) Paleomagnetic tracking of mountain building in the Peruvian Andes since 10 Ma. Tectonics 22:1048

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schildgen TF, Hodges KV, Whipple KX, Reiers PW, Pringle MS (2007) Uplift of western margin of the Andean plateau revealed from canyon incision history, southern Peru. Geology 35:523–526. doi:10.1130/G23532A.1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seeber L, Gornitz V (1983) River profiles along the Himalayan Arc as indicators of active tectonics. Tectonophysics 92:335–367

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seidl MA, Weissel JK, Pratson LF (1996) The kinematics and pattern of escarpment retreat across the rifted continental margin of SE Australia. Basin Res 12:301–316

    Google Scholar 

  • Silver PG, Russo RM, Lithgow-Bertelloni C (1998) Coupling of South American and African Plate motions and plate deformation. Science 279:60–63. doi:10.1125/Sci.279.5347.60

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Soler P, Bonhomme MG (1990) Relation of magmatic activity to plate dynamics in central Peru from Late Cretaceous to present. Special Pap J Geol Soc Am 241:173–192

    Google Scholar 

  • Steffen D, Schlunegger F, Preusser F (2009a) Drainage basin response to climate change in the Pisco valley, Peru. Geology 37:491–494. doi:10.1130/G25475A

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steffen D, Schlunegger F, Preusser F (2009b) Late Pleistocene fans and terraces in the Majes valley, southern Peru, and their relation to climatic variations. Int J Earth Sci. doi:10.1007/s00531-009-0389-2w

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinberger B, Torsvik TH (2008) Absolute plate motions and true polar wander in the absence of hotspot tracks. Nature 452:620–630. doi:10.1038/natrueo6824

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steinman M (1929) Geologie von Peru. Karl Winter, Heidelberg

    Google Scholar 

  • Suárez G, Gagnepai J, Cisternas A, Hatzfled D, Molnar P, Ocola L, Roecker SW, Viode JP (1990) Tectonic deformation of the Andes and the configuration of the subducted slab in central Peru; results from a microseismic experiment. Geophys J Int 103:1–12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Summerfield MA (1991) Global geomorphology. An introduction to the study of landforms. Longman Scientific Technical, Essex

    Google Scholar 

  • Thouret JC, Wörner G, Gunnell Y, Singer B, Zhan X, Souriot T (2007) Geochronologic and stratigraphic constrains on canyon incision and Miocen uplift of the Central Andes in Peru. Earth Planet Sci Lett 263:151–166

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weissel JK, Seidl MA (1998) Inland propagation of erosional escarpments and river profile evolution across the southeast Australian passive continental margin. In: Tinkler KJ, Wohl EE (eds) Rivers over Rock: fluvial processes in Bedrock Channels, Geophysl Monograph 107 AGU, Washington DC, pp 189–206

  • Whipley KX (2004) Bedrock Rivers and the geomorphology of active orogens. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 32:151–185. doi:10.1146/annuere.earth.32.101802.120356

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson J (1963) Cretaceous stratigraphy of Central Andes of Peru. Bull Am Assoc Pet Geol 47:1–34

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We acknowledge funding by the Swiss National Science Foundation, project # 200020-122143 and the Canton of Bern. Our thanks go to Javier Jacay from the Universidad Nacional de San Marcos de Lima for his invaluable help in the field and at the University in Lima. Giovanni Aguero is thanked for his skillful driving on difficult and dangerous roads.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Geological Sciences, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 1+3, 3012, Bern, Switzerland

    Laura Gonzalez & O. Adrian Pfiffner

Authors
  1. Laura Gonzalez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. O. Adrian Pfiffner
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Laura Gonzalez.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Gonzalez, L., Pfiffner, O.A. Morphologic evolution of the Central Andes of Peru. Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) 101, 307–321 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-011-0676-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-011-0676-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation