Abstract
Surface fires burn extensive areas of tropical forests each year, altering resource availability, biotic interactions, and, ultimately, plant diversity. In transitional forest between the Brazilian cerrado (savanna) and high stature Amazon forest, we took advantage of a long-term fire experiment to establish a factorial study of the interactions between fire, nutrient availability, and herbivory on early plant regeneration. Overall, five annual burns reduced the number and diversity of regenerating stems. Community composition changed substantially after repeated fires, and species common in the cerrado became more abundant. The number of recruits and their diversity were reduced in the burned area, but burned plots closed to herbivores with nitrogen additions had a 14 % increase in recruitment. Diversity of recruits also increased up to 50 % in burned plots when nitrogen was added. Phosphorus additions were related to an increase in species evenness in burned plots open to herbivores. Herbivory reduced seedling survival overall and increased diversity in burned plots when nutrients were added. This last result supports our hypothesis that positive relationships between herbivore presence and diversity would be strongest in treatments that favor herbivory—in this case herbivory was higher in burned plots which were initially lower in diversity. Regenerating seedlings in less diverse plots were likely more apparent to herbivores, enabling increased herbivory and a stronger signal of negative density dependence. In contrast, herbivores generally decreased diversity in more species rich unburned plots. Although this study documents complex interactions between repeated burns, nutrients, and herbivory, it is clear that fire initiates a shift in the factors that are most important in determining the diversity and number of recruits. This change may have long-lasting effects as the forest progresses through succession.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alvarez-Loayza P, Terborgh J (2011) Fates of seedling carpets in an Amazonian floodplain forest: intra-cohort competition or attack by enemies? J Ecol 99:1045–1054
Bobbink R et al (2010) Global assessment of nitrogen deposition effects on terrestrial plant diversity: a synthesis. Ecol Appl 20:30–59
Balch JK, Nepstad DC, Brando PM, Curran LM, Portela O, de Carvalho O, Lefebvre P (2008) Negative fire feedback in a transitional forest of southeastern Amazonia. Glob Change Biol 14:2276–2287
Barbosa P, Hines J, Kaplan I, Martinson H, Szczepaniec A, Szendrei Z (2009) Associational resistance and associational susceptibility: having right or wrong neighbors. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 40:1–20
Barlow J, Peres CA (2008) Fire-mediated dieback and compositional cascade in an Amazonian forest. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 363:1787–1794
Bartels SF, Chen HYH (2010) Is understory plant species diversity driven by resource quantity or resource heterogeneity? Ecology 91:1931–1938
Bongers F, Poorter L, Hawthorne WD, Sheil D (2009) The intermediate disturbance hypothesis applies to tropical forests, but disturbance contributes little to tree diversity. Ecol Lett 12:798–805
Brando PM, Nepstad DC, Balch JK, Bolker B, Christman MC, Coe M, Putz FE (2011) Fire-induced tree mortality in a neotropical forest: the roles of bark traits, tree size, wood density, and fire behavior. Glob Change Biol. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02533.x
Bush MB, Silman MR, McMichael C, Saatchi S (2008) Fire, climate change and biodiversity in Amazonia: a Late-Holocene perspective. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 363:1795–1802
Capers RS, Chazdon RL, Brenes AR, Alvarado BV (2005) Successional dynamics of woody seedling communities in wet tropical secondary forests. J Ecol 93:1071–1084
Carson WP, Anderson JT, Leigh EG Jr, Schnitzer SA (2008) Challenges associated with testing and falsifying the Janzen–Connell hypothesis: a review and critique. In: Carson WP, Schnitzer SA (eds) Tropical forest community ecology. Blackwell, Malden, pp 210–241
Carvalho E (2011) Fruit fall patterns in an experimentally burned Amazonian Forest. Masters Thesis: University of Florida
Ceccon E, Huante P, Campo J (2003) Effects of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization on the survival and recruitment of seedlings of dominant tree species in two abandoned tropical dry forests in Yucatán, Mexico. For Ecol Manag 182:387–402
Certini G (2005) Effects of fire on properties of forest soils: a review. Oecologia 143:1–10
Chao A, Shen T-J (2010) Program SPADE (Species Prediction and Diversity Estimation). Program and User’s Guide published at http://chao.stat.nthu.edu.tw
Chao A, Chazdon RL, Colwell RK, Shen T-J (2005a) A new statistical approach for assessing similarity of species composition with incidence and abundance data. Ecol Lett 8:148–159
Chao A, Chazdon RL, Colwell RK, Shen TJ (2005b) A new statistical approach for assessing similarity of species composition with incidence and abundance data. Ecol Lett 8:148–159
Chao A, Jost L, Chiang SC, Jiang YH, Chazdon RL (2008) A two-stage probabilistic approach to multiple-community similarity indices. Biometrics 64:1178–1186
Chen L, Mi X, Comita LS, Zhang L, Ren H, Ma K (2010) Community-level consequences of density dependence and habitat association in a subtropical broadleaved forest. Ecol Lett 13:695–704
Clark DB, Clark DA (1985) Seedling dynamics of a tropical tree: impacts of herbivory and meristem damage. Ecology 66:1884–1892
Cleary DFR, Priadjati A (2005) Vegetation responses to burning in a rain forest in Borneo. Plant Ecol 177:145–163
Cochrane MA, Schulze MD (1999) Fire as a recurrent event in tropical forests of the eastern Amazon: effects on forest structure, biomass, and species composition. Biotropica 31:2–16
Coley PD (1983) Intraspecific variation in herbivory on two tropical tree species. Ecology 64:426–433
Comita LS, Hubbell SP (2009) Local neighborhood and species’ shade tolerance influence survival in a diverse seedling bank. Ecology 90:328–334
Comita LS, Muller-Landau HC, Aguilar S, Hubbell SP (2010) Asymmetric density dependence shapes species abundances in a tropical tree community. Science 329:330–332
Connell JH (1971) On the role of natural enemies in preventing competitive exclusion in some marine animals and in rain forest trees. In: den Boer PJ, Gradwell G (eds) Dynamics of populations. Pudoc, Wageningen, pp 298–312
Coutinho L (1982) Ecological effects of fire in Brazilian cerrado. In: Huntley BJ, Walker BH (eds) Ecology of tropical savannas. Springer, Berlin, pp 273–291
Dezzeo N, Flores S, Chacon N (2008) Seedlings dynamics in undisturbed and adjacent fire disturbed forest in the Gran Sabana, southern Venezuela. Interciencia 33:273–279
Dyer LA, Letourneau DK, Vega Chavarria G, Salazar Amoretti D (2010) Herbivores on a dominant understory shrub increase local plant diversity in rain forest communities. Ecology 91:3707–3718
Fearnside PM (2001) Soybean cultivation as a threat to the environment in Brazil. Environ Conserv 28:23–38
Grime JP (1973) Competitive exclusion in herbaceous vegetation. Nature 242:344–347
Holdridge LR (1967) Life zone ecology. Tropical Science Center, San Jose
Janzen DH (1970) Herbivores and the number of tree species in tropical forests. Am Nat 104:501–528
Lewis OT (2009) Biodiversity change and ecosystem function in tropical forests. Basic Appl Ecol 10:97–102
Littell RC, Milliken GA, Stroup WW, Wolfinger R (1996) SAS system for mixed models. SAS Institute, North Carolina
Malhi Y, Roberts JT, Betts RA, Killeen TJ, Li W, Nobre CA (2008) Climate change, deforestation, and the fate of the Amazon. Science 319:169–172
Morton DC et al (2006) Cropland expansion changes deforestation dynamics in the southern Brazilian Amazon. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:14637–14641
Nepstad DC et al (1999) Large-scale impoverishment of Amazonian forests by logging and fire. Nature 398:505–508
Nimer E (1989) Climatologia do Brasil, 2nd edn. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística, Rio de Janeiro, p 421
Norghauer JM, Malcolm JR, Zimmerman BL, Felfili JM (2006) An experimental test of density- and distant-dependent recruitment of mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) in southeastern Amazonia. Oecologia 148:437–446
Oliveira PS, Marquis RJ (2002) The cerrados of Brazil: ecology and natural history of a neotropical savanna. Columbia University Press, New York
Oliveira Silva L, Andrade Costa D, do Espirtio Santo Filho K, Dias Ferreira H, Brandão D (2002) Levantamento florístico e fitossociológico em duas áreas de cerrado sensu stricto no Parque Estadual de Serra de Caldas Novas, Goiás. Acta Bot Bras 16:43–53
Price PW (1991) The plant vigor hypothesis and herbivore attack. Oikos 62:244–251
Rad JE, Manthey M, Mataji A (2009) Comparison of plant species diversity with different plant communities in deciduous forests. Int J Environ Sci Technol 6:389–394
Saha S, Howe HF (2003) Species composition and fire in a dry deciduous forest. Ecology 84:3118–3123
Santana Carvalho K (2008) Influências dos ninhos de saúva (Formicidae: Attini) na nutrição, crescimento e proteção da vegetação contra o fogo, em uma floresta de transição Amazônia-Cerrado. PhD Dissertation: Universidade Federal de Pará
Siddique I, Vieira ICG, Schmidt S, Lamb D, Carvalho CJR, Figueiredo RD, Blomberg S, Davidson EA (2010) Nitrogen and phosphorus additions negatively affect tree species diversity in tropical forest regrowth trajectories. Ecology 91:2121–2131
Slik J, Bernard C, Beek M, Breman F, Eichhorn K (2008) Tree diversity, composition, forest structure and aboveground biomass dynamics after single and repeated fire in a Bornean rain forest. Oecologia 158:579–588
Soares-Filho BS et al (2006) Modelling conservation in the Amazon basin. Nature 440:520–523
Stein SJ, Price PW, Abrahamson WG, Sacchi CF (1992) The effect of fire on simulating willow regrowth and subsequent attack by grasshoppers and elk. Oikos 65:190–196
Stevens MHH, Carson WP (2002) Resource quantity, not resource heterogeneity, maintains plant diversity. Ecol Lett 5:420–426
Strassburg BBN et al (2010) Global congruence of carbon storage and biodiversity in terrestrial ecosystems. Conserv Lett 3:98–105
Swamy V, Terborgh JW (2010) Distance-responsive natural enemies strongly influence seedling establishment patterns of multiple species in an Amazonian rain forest. J Ecol 98:1096–1107
van Mantgem P, Schwartz M, Keifer MB (2001) Monitoring fire effects for managed burns and wildfires: coming to terms with pseudoreplication. Nat Areas J 21:266–273
Zarin DJ et al (2005) Legacy of fire slows carbon accumulation in Amazonian forest regrowth. Front Ecol Environ 3:365–369
Acknowledgments
Special thanks to the Instituto de Pesquisa Ambiental da Amazônia for providing excellent logistical and field support. Thanks especially to the field technicians who assisted with this work. Thank you also to Liza Comita and Jens Schumacher for insightful comments and advice on the statistical analyses. All work was done in compliance with Brazilian laws.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Communicated by Peter Clarke.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Massad, T.J., Balch, J.K., Davidson, E.A. et al. Interactions between repeated fire, nutrients, and insect herbivores affect the recovery of diversity in the southern Amazon. Oecologia 172, 219–229 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-012-2482-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-012-2482-x