Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Human stem cells for CNS repair

  • Review
  • Published:
Cell and Tissue Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Although most peripheral tissues have at least a limited ability for self-repair, the central nervous system (CNS) has long been known to be relatively resistant to regeneration. Small numbers of stem cells have been found in the adult brain but do not appear to be able to affect any significant recovery following disease or insult. In the last few decades, the idea of being able to repair the brain by introducing new cells to repair damaged areas has become an accepted potential treatment for neurodegenerative diseases. This review focuses on the suitability of various human stem cell sources for such treatments of both slowly progressing conditions, such as Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease and multiple sclerosis, and acute insult, such as stroke and spinal cord injury. Despite stem cell transplantation having now moved a step closer to the clinic with the first trials of autologous mesenchymal stem cells, the effects shown are moderate and are not yet at the stage of development that can fulfil the hopes that have been placed on stem cells as a means to replace degenerating cells in the CNS. Success will depend on careful investigation in experimental models to enable us to understand not just the practicalities of stem cell use, but also the underlying biological principles.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Akerud P, Canals JM, Snyder EY, Arenas E (2001) Neuroprotection through delivery of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor by neural stem cells in a mouse model of Parkinson’s disease. J Neurosci 21:8108–8118

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Akiyama Y, Radtke C, Honmou O, Kocsis JD (2002) Remyelination of the spinal cord following intravenous delivery of bone marrow cells. Glia 39:229–236

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson L, Burnstein RM, He X, Luce R, Furlong R, Foltynie T, Sykacek P, Menon DK, Caldwell MA (2007) Gene expression changes in long term expanded human neural progenitor cells passaged by chopping lead to loss of neurogenic potential in vivo. Exp Neurol 204:512–524

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arbab AS, Yocum GT, Wilson LB, Parwana A, Jordan EK, Kalish H, Frank JA (2004) Comparison of transfection agents in forming complexes with ferumoxides, cell labeling efficiency, and cellular viability. Mol Imaging 3:24–32

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong RJ, Watts C, Svendsen CN, Dunnett SB, Rosser AE (2000) Survival, neuronal differentiation, and fiber outgrowth of propagated human neural precursor grafts in an animal model of Huntington’s disease. Cell Transplant 9:55–64

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arvidsson A, Collin T, Kirik D, Kokaia Z, Lindvall O (2002) Neuronal replacement from endogenous precursors in the adult brain after stroke. Nat Med 8:963–970

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bachoud-Levi AC, Gaura V, Brugieres P, Lefaucheur JP, Boisse MF, Maison P, Baudic S, Ribeiro MJ, Bourdet C, Remy P, Cesaro P, Hantraye P, Peschanski M (2006) Effect of fetal neural transplants in patients with Huntington’s disease 6 years after surgery: a long-term follow-up study. Lancet Neurol 5:303–309

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bang OY, Lee JS, Lee PH, Lee G (2005) Autologous mesenchymal stem cell transplantation in stroke patients. Ann Neurol 57:874–882

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bareyre FM, Kerschensteiner M, Raineteau O, Mettenleiter TC, Weinmann O, Schwab ME (2004) The injured spinal cord spontaneously forms a new intraspinal circuit in adult rats. Nat Neurosci 7:269–277

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Behrstock S, Svendsen CN (2004) Combining growth factors, stem cells, and gene therapy for the aging brain. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1019:5–14

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bernreuther C, Dihne M, Johann V, Schiefer J, Cui Y, Hargus G, Schmid JS, Xu J, Kosinski CM, Schachner M (2006) Neural cell adhesion molecule L1-transfected embryonic stem cells promote functional recovery after excitotoxic lesion of the mouse striatum. J Neurosci 26:11532–11539

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bieberich E, Silva J, Wang G, Krishnamurthy K, Condie BG (2004) Selective apoptosis of pluripotent mouse and human stem cells by novel ceramide analogues prevents teratoma formation and enriches for neural precursors in ES cell-derived neural transplants. J Cell Biol 167:723–734

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bjorklund A (1992) Dopaminergic transplants in experimental parkinsonism: cellular mechanisms of graft-induced functional recovery. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2:683–689

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bjorklund LM, Sanchez-Pernaute R, Chung S, Andersson T, Chen IY, McNaught KS, Brownell AL, Jenkins BG, Wahlestedt C, Kim KS, Isacson O (2002) Embryonic stem cells develop into functional dopaminergic neurons after transplantation in a Parkinson rat model. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:2344–2349

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bloch J, Bachoud-Levi AC, Deglon N, Lefaucheur JP, Winkel L, Palfi S, Nguyen JP, Bourdet C, Gaura V, Remy P, Brugieres P, Boisse MF, Baudic S, Cesaro P, Hantraye P, Aebischer P, Peschanski M (2004) Neuroprotective gene therapy for Huntington’s disease, using polymer-encapsulated cells engineered to secrete human ciliary neurotrophic factor: results of a phase I study. Hum Gene Ther 15:968–975

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Borlongan CV, Hadman M, Sanberg CD, Sanberg PR (2004) Central nervous system entry of peripherally injected umbilical cord blood cells is not required for neuroprotection in stroke. Stroke 35:2385–2389

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bouhon IA, Joannides A, Kato H, Chandran S, Allen ND (2006) Embryonic stem cell-derived neural progenitors display temporal restriction to neural patterning. Stem Cells 24:1908–1913

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Braak H, Braak E (1998) Evolution of neuronal changes in the course of Alzheimer’s disease. J Neural Transm Suppl 53:127–140

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bradbury EJ, McMahon SB (2006) Spinal cord repair strategies: why do they work? Nat Rev Neurosci 7:644–653

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brazelton TR, Rossi FM, Keshet GI, Blau HM (2000) From marrow to brain: expression of neuronal phenotypes in adult mice. Science 290:1775–1779

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brederlau A, Correia AS, Anisimov SV, Elmi M, Paul G, Roybon L, Morizane A, Bergquist F, Riebe I, Nannmark U, Carta M, Hanse E, Takahashi J, Sasai Y, Funa K, Brundin P, Eriksson PS, Li JY (2006) Transplantation of human embryonic stem cell-derived cells to a rat model of Parkinson’s disease: effect of in vitro differentiation on graft survival and teratoma formation. Stem Cells 24:1433–1440

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bregman BS, Coumans JV, Dai HN, Kuhn PL, Lynskey J, McAtee M, Sandhu F (2002) Transplants and neurotrophic factors increase regeneration and recovery of function after spinal cord injury. Prog Brain Res 137:257–273

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brundin P, Pogarell O, Hagell P, Piccini P, Widner H, Schrag A, Kupsch A, Crabb L, Odin P, Gustavii B, Bjorklund A, Brooks DJ, Marsden CD, Oertel WH, Quinn NP, Rehncrona S, Lindvall O (2000) Bilateral caudate and putamen grafts of embryonic mesencephalic tissue treated with lazaroids in Parkinson’s disease. Brain 123:1380–1390

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buhnemann C, Scholz A, Bernreuther C, Malik CY, Braun H, Schachner M, Reymann KG, Dihne M (2006) Neuronal differentiation of transplanted embryonic stem cell-derived precursors in stroke lesions of adult rats.Brain 129:3238–3248

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buzanska L, Machaj EK, Zablocka B, Pojda Z, Domanska-Janik K (2002) Human cord blood-derived cells attain neuronal and glial features in vitro. J Cell Sci 115:2131–2138

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell MA, He X, Wilkie N, Pollack S, Marshall G, Wafford KA, Svendsen CN (2001) Growth factors regulate the survival and fate of cells derived from human neurospheres. Nat Biotechnol 19:475–479

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cao Q, Xu XM, Devries WH, Enzmann GU, Ping P, Tsoulfas P, Wood PM, Bunge MB, Whittemore SR (2005) Functional recovery in traumatic spinal cord injury after transplantation of multineurotrophin-expressing glial-restricted precursor cells. J Neurosci 25:6947–6957

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carlsson T, Winkler C, Lundblad M, Cenci MA, Bjorklund A, Kirik D (2006) Graft placement and uneven pattern of reinnervation in the striatum is important for development of graft-induced dyskinesia. Neurobiol Dis 21:657–668

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter MK, Cui X, Hu ZY, Jackson J, Sherman S, Seiger A, Wahlberg LU (1999) In vitro expansion of a multipotent population of human neural progenitor cells. Exp Neurol 158:265–278

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carta M, Carlsson T, Kirik D, Bjorklund A (2007) Dopamine released from 5-HT terminals is the cause of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia in parkinsonian rats. Brain 130:1819–1833

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chandran S, Hunt D, Joannides A, Zhao C, Compston A, Franklin RJ (2007) Myelin repair: the role of stem and precursor cells in multiple sclerosis. Philos Trans R Soc Lond [Biol] (in press)

  • Chen J, Sanberg PR, Li Y, Wang L, Lu M, Willing AE, Sanchez-Ramos J, Chopp M (2001) Intravenous administration of human umbilical cord blood reduces behavioral deficits after stroke in rats. Stroke 32:2682–2688

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng H, Cao Y, Olson L (1996) Spinal cord repair in adult paraplegic rats: partial restoration of hind limb function. Science 273:510–513

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Choi DW (1988) Calcium-mediated neurotoxicity: relationship to specific channel types and role in ischemic damage. Trends Neurosci 11:465–469

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chopp M, Zhang XH, Li Y, Wang L, Chen J, Lu D, Lu M, Rosenblum M (2000) Spinal cord injury in rat: treatment with bone marrow stromal cell transplantation. Neuroreport 11:3001–3005

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Christophersen NS, Brundin P (2007) Large stem cell grafts could lead to erroneous interpretations of behavioral results? Nat Med 13:118–119

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chu K, Kim M, Jeong SW, Kim SU, Yoon BW (2003) Human neural stem cells can migrate, differentiate, and integrate after intravenous transplantation in adult rats with transient forebrain ischemia. Neurosci Lett 343:129–133

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chu K, Kim M, Park KI, Jeong SW, Park HK, Jung KH, Lee ST, Kang L, Lee K, Park DK, Kim SU, Roh JK (2004) Human neural stem cells improve sensorimotor deficits in the adult rat brain with experimental focal ischemia. Brain Res 1016:145–153

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chung S, Shin BS, Hedlund E, Pruszak J, Ferree A, Kang UJ, Isacson O, Kim KS (2006) Genetic selection of sox1GFP-expressing neural precursors removes residual tumorigenic pluripotent stem cells and attenuates tumor formation after transplantation. J Neurochem 97:1467–1480

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cipriani S, Bonini D, Marchina E, Balgkouranidou I, Caimi L, Grassi ZG, Barlati S (2007) Mesenchymal cells from human amniotic fluid survive and migrate after transplantation into adult rat brain. Cell Biol Int 31(8):845–850

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clement AM, Nguyen MD, Roberts EA, Garcia ML, Boillee S, Rule M, McMahon AP, Doucette W, Siwek D, Ferrante RJ, Brown RH Jr, Julien JP, Goldstein LS, Cleveland DW (2003) Wild-type nonneuronal cells extend survival of SOD1 mutant motor neurons in ALS mice. Science 302:113–117

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Conti L, Pollard SM, Gorba T, Reitano E, Toselli M, Biella G, Sun Y, Sanzone S, Ying QL, Cattaneo E, Smith A (2005) Niche-independent symmetrical self-renewal of a mammalian tissue stem cell. PLoS Biol 3:e283

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corti S, Locatelli F, Donadoni C, Guglieri M, Papadimitriou D, Strazzer S, Del Bo R, Comi GP (2004) Wild-type bone marrow cells ameliorate the phenotype of SOD1-G93A ALS mice and contribute to CNS, heart and skeletal muscle tissues. Brain 127:2518–2532

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Rosa R, Garcia AA, Braschi C, Capsoni S, Maffei L, Berardi N, Cattaneo A (2005) Intranasal administration of nerve growth factor (NGF) rescues recognition memory deficits in AD11 anti-NGF transgenic mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102:3811–3816

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deng J, Petersen BE, Steindler DA, Jorgensen ML, Laywell ED (2006) Mesenchymal stem cells spontaneously express neural proteins in culture and are neurogenic after transplantation. Stem Cells 24:1054–1064

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Draper JS, Smith K, Gokhale P, Moore HD, Maltby E, Johnson J, Meisner L, Zwaka TP, Thomson JA, Andrews PW (2004) Recurrent gain of chromosomes 17q and 12 in cultured human embryonic stem cells. Nat Biotechnol 22:53–54

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ende N, Chen R (2001) Human umbilical cord blood cells ameliorate Huntington’s disease in transgenic mice. J Med 32:231–240

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ende N, Chen R (2002) Parkinson’s disease mice and human umbilical cord blood. J Med 33:173–180

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ende N, Weinstein F, Chen R, Ende M (2000) Human umbilical cord blood effect on sod mice (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis). Life Sci 67:53–59

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ende N, Chen R, Ende-Harris D (2001) Human umbilical cord blood cells ameliorate Alzheimer’s disease in transgenic mice. J Med 32:241–247

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fallahi-Sichani M, Soleimani M, Najafi SM, Kiani J, Arefian E, Atashi A (2007) In vitro differentiation of cord blood unrestricted somatic stem cells expressing dopamine-associated genes into neuron-like cells. Cell Biol Int 31:299–303

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fassas A, Passweg JR, Anagnostopoulos A, Kazis A, Kozak T, Havrdova E, Carreras E, Graus F, Kashyap A, Openshaw H, Schipperus M, Deconinck E, Mancardi G, Marmont A, Hansz J, Rabusin M, Zuazu Nagore FJ, Besalduch J, Dentamaro T, Fouillard L, Hertenstein B, La Nasa G, Musso M, Papineschi F, Rowe JM, Saccardi R, Steck A, Kappos L, Gratwohl A, Tyndall A, Samijn J (2002) Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for multiple sclerosis. A retrospective multicenter study. J Neurol 249:1088–1097

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fawcett JW (2006) Overcoming inhibition in the damaged spinal cord. J Neurotrauma 23:371–383

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fawcett JW, Barker RA, Dunnett SB (1995) Dopaminergic neuronal survival and the effects of bFGF in explant, three dimensional and monolayer cultures of embryonic rat ventral mesencephalon. Exp Brain Res 106:275–282

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Feron F, Perry C, Cochrane J, Licina P, Nowitzke A, Urquhart S, Geraghty T, Mackay-Sim A (2005) Autologous olfactory ensheathing cell transplantation in human spinal cord injury. Brain 128:2951–2960

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Franklin RJ (2002) Why does remyelination fail in multiple sclerosis? Nat Rev Neurosci 3:705–714

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Freed CR, Greene PE, Breeze RE, Tsai WY, DuMouchel W, Kao R, Dillon S, Winfield H, Culver S, Trojanowski JQ, Eidelberg D, Fahn S (2001) Transplantation of embryonic dopamine neurons for severe Parkinson’s disease. N Engl J Med 344:710–719

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fu YS, Cheng YC, Lin MY, Cheng H, Chu PM, Chou SC, Shih YH, Ko MH, Sung MS (2006) Conversion of human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells in Wharton’s jelly to dopaminergic neurons in vitro: potential therapeutic application for Parkinsonism. Stem Cells 24:115–124

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Galvin KA, Jones DG (2006) Adult human neural stem cells for autologous cell replacement therapies for neurodegenerative disorders. NeuroRehabilitation 21:255–265

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garbuzova-Davis S, Willing AE, Zigova T, Saporta S, Justen EB, Lane JC, Hudson JE, Chen N, Davis CD, Sanberg PR (2003) Intravenous administration of human umbilical cord blood cells in a mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: distribution, migration, and differentiation. J Hematother Stem Cell Res 12:255–270

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heese K, Low JW, Inoue N (2006) Nerve growth factor, neural stem cells and Alzheimer’s disease. Neurosignals 15:1–12

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huang H, Chen L, Wang H, Xiu B, Li B, Wang R, Zhang J, Zhang F, Gu Z, Li Y, Song Y, Hao W, Pang S, Sun J (2003) Influence of patients’ age on functional recovery after transplantation of olfactory ensheathing cells into injured spinal cord injury. Chin Med J (Engl) 116:1488–1491

    Google Scholar 

  • Iacovitti L, Donaldson AE, Marshall CE, Suon S, Yang M (2007) A protocol for the differentiation of human embryonic stem cells into dopaminergic neurons using only chemically defined human additives: studies in vitro and in vivo. Brain Res 1127:19–25

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ikeda N, Nonoguchi N, Zhao MZ, Watanabe T, Kajimoto Y, Furutama D, Kimura F, Dezawa M, Coffin RS, Otsuki Y, Kuroiwa T, Miyatake S (2005) Bone marrow stromal cells that enhanced fibroblast growth factor-2 secretion by Herpes simplex virus vector improve neurological outcome after transient focal cerebral ischemia in rats. Stroke 36:2725–2730

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Imitola J, Raddassi K, Park KI, Mueller FJ, Nieto M, Teng YD, Frenkel D, Li J, Sidman RL, Walsh CA, Snyder EY, Khoury SJ (2004) Directed migration of neural stem cells to sites of CNS injury by the stromal cell-derived factor 1alpha/CXC chemokine receptor 4 pathway. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101:18117–18122

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • In ’t Anker PS, Scherjon SA, Kleijburg-van der Keur C, Noort WA, Claas FH, Willemze R, Fibbe WE, Kanhai HH (2003) Amniotic fluid as a novel source of mesenchymal stem cells for therapeutic transplantation. Blood 102:1548–1549

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Inoue M, Honmou O, Oka S, Houkin K, Hashi K, Kocsis JD (2003) Comparative analysis of remyelinating potential of focal and intravenous administration of autologous bone marrow cells into the rat demyelinated spinal cord. Glia 44:111–118

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Isacson O, Bjorklund LM, Schumacher JM (2003) Toward full restoration of synaptic and terminal function of the dopaminergic system in Parkinson’s disease by stem cells. Ann Neurol 53 (Suppl 3):S135–S146

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ishibashi S, Sakaguchi M, Kuroiwa T, Yamasaki M, Kanemura Y, Shizuko I, Shimazaki T, Onodera M, Okano H, Mizusawa H (2004) Human neural stem/progenitor cells, expanded in long-term neurosphere culture, promote functional recovery after focal ischemia in Mongolian gerbils. J Neurosci Res 78:215–223

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jain M, Armstrong RJ, Tyers P, Barker RA, Rosser AE (2003) GABAergic immunoreactivity is predominant in neurons derived from expanded human neural precursor cells in vitro. Exp Neurol 182:113–123

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ji JF, He BP, Dheen ST, Tay SS (2004) Interactions of chemokines and chemokine receptors mediate the migration of mesenchymal stem cells to the impaired site in the brain after hypoglossal nerve injury. Stem Cells 22:415–427

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Julien JP (2007) ALS: astrocytes move in as deadly neighbors. Nat Neurosci 10:535–537

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Karimi-Abdolrezaee S, Eftekharpour E, Wang J, Morshead CM, Fehlings MG (2006) Delayed transplantation of adult neural precursor cells promotes remyelination and functional neurological recovery after spinal cord injury. J Neurosci 26:3377–3389

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaviani A, Young A, Fuchs J, Oh J-Y, Jennings RW, Fauza D (2002) Reduced immunogenicity of mesenchymal amniocytes during expansion in vitro: implications for heterologous tissue engineering applications. Pediatr Surg 195:S40

    Google Scholar 

  • Keirstead HS (2005) Stem cells for the treatment of myelin loss. Trends Neurosci 28:677–683

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keirstead HS, Nistor G, Bernal G, Totoiu M, Cloutier F, Sharp K, Steward O (2005) Human embryonic stem cell-derived oligodendrocyte progenitor cell transplants remyelinate and restore locomotion after spinal cord injury. J Neurosci 25:4694–4705

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly CM, Tyers P, Borg MT, Svendsen CN, Dunnett SB, Rosser AE (2005) EGF and FGF-2 responsiveness of rat and mouse neural precursors derived from the embryonic CNS. Brain Res Bull 68:83–94

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim SU (2007) Genetically engineered human neural stem cells for brain repair in neurological diseases. Brain Dev 29:193–201

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim JH, Auerbach JM, Rodriguez-Gomez JA, Velasco I, Gavin D, Lumelsky N, Lee SH, Nguyen J, Sanchez-Pernaute R, Bankiewicz K, McKay R (2002) Dopamine neurons derived from embryonic stem cells function in an animal model of Parkinson’s disease. Nature 418:50–56

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klein SM, Behrstock S, McHugh J, Hoffmann K, Wallace K, Suzuki M, Aebischer P, Svendsen CN (2005) GDNF delivery using human neural progenitor cells in a rat model of ALS. Hum Gene Ther 16:509–521

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kleppner SR, Robinson KA, Trojanowski JQ, Lee VM (1995) Transplanted human neurons derived from a teratocarcinoma cell line (NTera-2) mature, integrate, and survive for over 1 year in the nude mouse brain. J Comp Neurol 357:618–632

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kondziolka D, Steinberg GK, Wechsler L, Meltzer CC, Elder E, Gebel J, Decesare S, Jovin T, Zafonte R, Lebowitz J, Flickinger JC, Tong D, Marks MP, Jamieson C, Luu D, Bell-Stephens T, Teraoka J (2005) Neurotransplantation for patients with subcortical motor stroke: a phase 2 randomized trial. J Neurosurg 103:38–45

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuan WL, Lin R, Tyers P, Barker RA (2007) The importance of A9 dopaminergic neurons in mediating the functional benefits of fetal ventral mesencephalon transplants and levodopa-induced dyskinesias. Neurobiol Dis 25:594–608

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kurozumi K, Nakamura K, Tamiya T, Kawano Y, Ishii K, Kobune M, Hirai S, Uchida H, Sasaki K, Ito Y, Kato K, Honmou O, Houkin K, Date I, Hamada H (2005) Mesenchymal stem cells that produce neurotrophic factors reduce ischemic damage in the rat middle cerebral artery occlusion model. Mol Ther 11:96–104

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lane EL, Winkler C, Brundin P, Cenci MA (2006) The impact of graft size on the development of dyskinesia following intrastriatal grafting of embryonic dopamine neurons in the rat. Neurobiol Dis 22:334–345

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee ST, Chu K, Park JE, Lee K, Kang L, Kim SU, Kim M (2005) Intravenous administration of human neural stem cells induces functional recovery in Huntington’s disease rat model. Neurosci Res 52:243–249

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee HJ, Kim KS, Park IH, Kim SU (2007) Human neural stem cells over-expressing VEGF provide neuroprotection, angiogenesis and functional recovery in mouse stroke model. PLoS ONE 2:e156

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lescaudron L, Unni D, Dunbar GL (2003) Autologous adult bone marrow stem cell transplantation in an animal model of Huntington’s disease: behavioral and morphological outcomes. Int J Neurosci 113:945–956

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li Y, Field PM, Raisman G (1997) Repair of adult rat corticospinal tract by transplants of olfactory ensheathing cells. Science 277:2000–2002

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li Y, Field PM, Raisman G (1998) Regeneration of adult rat corticospinal axons induced by transplanted olfactory ensheathing cells. J Neurosci 18:10514–10524

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li Y, Chen J, Wang L, Zhang L, Lu M, Chopp M (2001) Intracerebral transplantation of bone marrow stromal cells in a 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine mouse model of Parkinson’s disease. Neurosci Lett 316:67–70

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liang P, Jin LH, Liang T, Liu EZ, Zhao SG (2006) Human neural stem cells promote corticospinal axons regeneration and synapse reformation in injured spinal cord of rats. Chin Med J (Engl) 119:1331–1338

    Google Scholar 

  • Lima C, Pratas-Vital J, Escada P, Hasse-Ferreira A, Capucho C, Peduzzi JD (2006) Olfactory mucosa autografts in human spinal cord injury: a pilot clinical study. J Spinal Cord Med 29:191–203

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lindvall O (1998) Update on fetal transplantation: the Swedish experience. Mov Disord 13 (Suppl 1):83–87

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lindvall O, Bjorklund A (2004) Cell therapy in Parkinson’s disease. NeuroRx 1:382–393

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu S, Liu H, Pan Y, Tang S, Xiong J, Hui N, Wang S, Qi Z, Li L (2004) Human embryonic germ cells isolation from early stages of post-implantation embryos. Cell Tissue Res 318:525–531

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Love S, Plaha P, Patel NK, Hotton GR, Brooks DJ, Gill SS (2005) Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor induces neuronal sprouting in human brain. Nat Med 11:703–704

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Macias MY, Syring MB, Pizzi MA, Crowe MJ, Alexanian AR, Kurpad SN (2006) Pain with no gain: allodynia following neural stem cell transplantation in spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 201:335–348

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Majumdar MK, Thiede MA, Mosca JD, Moorman M, Gerson SL (1998) Phenotypic and functional comparison of cultures of marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and stromal cells. J Cell Physiol 176:57–66

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mazzini L, Fagioli F, Boccaletti R, Mareschi K, Oliveri G, Olivieri C, Pastore I, Marasso R, Madon E (2003) Stem cell therapy in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: a methodological approach in humans. Amyotroph Lateral Scler Other Motor Neuron Disord 4:158–161

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mazzini L, Mareschi K, Ferrero I, Vassallo E, Oliveri G, Boccaletti R, Testa L, Livigni S, Fagioli F (2006) Autologous mesenchymal stem cells: clinical applications in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neurol Res 28:523–526

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McBride JL, Behrstock SP, Chen EY, Jakel RJ, Siegel I, Svendsen CN, Kordower JH (2004) Human neural stem cell transplants improve motor function in a rat model of Huntington’s disease. J Comp Neurol 475:211–219

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McDonald JW, Liu XZ, Qu Y, Liu S, Mickey SK, Turetsky D, Gottlieb DI, Choi DW (1999) Transplanted embryonic stem cells survive, differentiate and promote recovery in injured rat spinal cord. Nat Med 5:1410–1412

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mendez I, Sanchez-Pernaute R, Cooper O, Vinuela A, Ferrari D, Bjorklund L, Dagher A, Isacson O (2005) Cell type analysis of functional fetal dopamine cell suspension transplants in the striatum and substantia nigra of patients with Parkinson’s disease. Brain 128:1498–1510

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mezey E, Chandross KJ, Harta G, Maki RA, McKercher SR (2000) Turning blood into brain: cells bearing neuronal antigens generated in vivo from bone marrow. Science 290:1779–1782

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moviglia GA, Fernandez VR, Brizuela JA, Saslavsky J, Vrsalovic F, Varela G, Bastos F, Farina P, Etchegaray G, Barbieri M, Martinez G, Picasso F, Schmidt Y, Brizuela P, Gaeta CA, Costanzo H, Moviglia Brandolino MT, Merino S, Pes ME, Veloso MJ, Rugilo C, Tamer I, Shuster GS (2006) Combined protocol of cell therapy for chronic spinal cord injury. Report on the electrical and functional recovery of two patients. Cytotherapy 8:202–209

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nakatomi H, Kuriu T, Okabe S, Yamamoto S, Hatano O, Kawahara N, Tamura A, Kirino T, Nakafuku M (2002) Regeneration of hippocampal pyramidal neurons after ischemic brain injury by recruitment of endogenous neural progenitors. Cell 110:429–441

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nan Z, Grande A, Sanberg CD, Sanberg PR, Low WC (2005) Infusion of human umbilical cord blood ameliorates neurologic deficits in rats with hemorrhagic brain injury. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1049:84–96

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nathan PW (1994) Effects on movement of surgical incisions into the human spinal cord. Brain 117:337–346

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson PT, Kondziolka D, Wechsler L, Goldstein S, Gebel J, Decesare S, Elder EM, Zhang PJ, Jacobs A, McGrogan M, Lee VM, Trojanowski JQ (2002) Clonal human (hNT) neuron grafts for stroke therapy: neuropathology in a patient 27 months after implantation. Am J Pathol 160:1201–1206

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olanow CW, Goetz CG, Kordower JH, Stoessl AJ, Sossi V, Brin MF, Shannon KM, Nauert GM, Perl DP, Godbold J, Freeman TB (2003) A double-blind controlled trial of bilateral fetal nigral transplantation in Parkinson’s disease. Ann Neurol 54:403–414

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paino CL, Bunge MB (1991) Induction of axon growth into Schwann cell implants grafted into lesioned adult rat spinal cord. Exp Neurol 114:254–257

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Park CH, Minn YK, Lee JY, Choi DH, Chang MY, Shim JW, Ko JY, Koh HC, Kang MJ, Kang JS, Rhie DJ, Lee YS, Son H, Moon SY, Kim KS, Lee SH (2005) In vitro and in vivo analyses of human embryonic stem cell-derived dopamine neurons. J Neurochem 92:1265–1276

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Patel NK, Bunnage M, Plaha P, Svendsen CN, Heywood P, Gill SS (2005) Intraputamenal infusion of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor in PD: a two-year outcome study. Ann Neurol 57:298–302

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Penn RD, Kroin JS, York MM, Cedarbaum JM (1997) Intrathecal ciliary neurotrophic factor delivery for treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (phase I trial). Neurosurgery 40:94–99

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Piccini P, Brooks DJ, Bjorklund A, Gunn RN, Grasby PM, Rimoldi O, Brundin P, Hagell P, Rehncrona S, Widner H, Lindvall O (1999) Dopamine release from nigral transplants visualized in vivo in a Parkinson’s patient. Nat Neurosci 2:1137–1140

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Piccini P, Pavese N, Hagell P, Reimer J, Bjorklund A, Oertel WH, Quinn NP, Brooks DJ, Lindvall O (2005) Factors affecting the clinical outcome after neural transplantation in Parkinson’s disease. Brain 128:2977–2986

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pineda JR, Rubio N, Akerud P, Urban N, Badimon L, Arenas E, Alberch J, Blanco J, Canals JM (2007) Neuroprotection by GDNF-secreting stem cells in a Huntington’s disease model: optical neuroimage tracking of brain-grafted cells. Gene Ther 14:118–128

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pisati F, Bossolasco P, Meregalli M, Cova L, Belicchi M, Gavina M, Marchesi C, Calzarossa C, Soligo D, Lambertenghi-Deliliers G, Bresolin N, Silani V, Torrente Y, Polli E (2007) Induction of neurotrophin expression via human adult mesenchymal stem cells: implication for cell therapy in neurodegenerative diseases. Cell Transplant 16:41–55

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pluchino S, Quattrini A, Brambilla E, Gritti A, Salani G, Dina G, Galli R, Del Carro U, Amadio S, Bergami A, Furlan R, Comi G, Vescovi AL, Martino G (2003) Injection of adult neurospheres induces recovery in a chronic model of multiple sclerosis. Nature 422:688–694

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Quinn NP (1990) The clinical application of cell grafting techniques in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Prog Brain Res 82:619–625

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Raisman G, Li Y (2007) Repair of neural pathways by olfactory ensheathing cells. Nat Rev Neurosci 8:312–319

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds BA, Weiss S (1992) Generation of neurons and astrocytes from isolated cells of the adult mammalian central nervous system. Science 255:1707–1710

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez-Gomez JA, Lu JQ, Velasco I, Rivera S, Zoghbi SS, Liow JS, Musachio JL, Chin FT, Toyama H, Seidel J, Green MV, Thanos PK, Ichise M, Pike VW, Innis RB, McKay RD (2007) Persistent dopamine functions of neurons derived from embryonic stem cells in a rodent model of Parkinson disease. Stem Cells 25:918–928

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roitberg BZ, Mangubat E, Chen EY, Sugaya K, Thulborn KR, Kordower JH, Pawar A, Konecny T, Emborg ME (2006) Survival and early differentiation of human neural stem cells transplanted in a nonhuman primate model of stroke. J Neurosurg 105:96–102

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg MB, Friedmann T, Robertson RC, Tuszynski M, Wolff JA, Breakefield XO, Gage FH (1988) Grafting genetically modified cells to the damaged brain: restorative effects of NGF expression. Science 242:1575–1578

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roy NS, Cleren C, Singh SK, Yang L, Beal MF, Goldman SA (2006) Functional engraftment of human ES cell-derived dopaminergic neurons enriched by coculture with telomerase-immortalized midbrain astrocytes. Nat Med 12:1259–1268

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saccardi R, Kozak T, Bocelli-Tyndall C, Fassas A, Kazis A, Havrdova E, Carreras E, Saiz A, Lowenberg B, Boekhorst PA te, Gualandio F, Openshaw H, Longo G, Pagliai F, Massacesi L, Deconink E, Ouyang J, Nagore FJ, Besalduch J, Lisukov IA, Bonini A, Merelli E, Slavino S, Gratwohl A, Passweg J, Tyndall A, Steck AJ, Andolina M, Capobianco M, Martin JL, Lugaresi A, Meucci G, Saez RA, Clark RE, Fernandez MN, Fouillard L, Herstenstein B, Koza V, Cocco E, Baurmann H, Mancardi GL (2006) Autologous stem cell transplantation for progressive multiple sclerosis: update of the European Group for Blood and Marrow Transplantation Autoimmune Diseases Working Party Database. Mult Scler 12:814–823

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Samijn JP, Boekhorst PA te, Mondria T, PA van Doorn, Flach HZ, Meche FG van der, Cornelissen J, Hop WC, Lowenberg B, Hintzen RQ (2006) Intense T cell depletion followed by autologous bone marrow transplantation for severe multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 77:46–50

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sanberg PR, Willing AE, Garbuzova-Davis S, Saporta S, Liu G, Sanberg CD, Bickford PC, Klasko SK, El Badri NS (2005) Umbilical cord blood-derived stem cells and brain repair. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1049:67–83

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sanchez-Pernaute R, Studer L, Bankiewicz KS, Major EO, McKay RD (2001) In vitro generation and transplantation of precursor-derived human dopamine neurons. J Neurosci Res 65:284–288

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Savitz SI, Rosenbaum DM, Dinsmore JH, Wechsler LR, Caplan LR (2002) Cell transplantation for stroke. Ann Neurol 52:266–275

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shamblott MJ, Axelman J, Littlefield JW, Blumenthal PD, Huggins GR, Cui Y, Cheng L, Gearhart JD (2001) Human embryonic germ cell derivatives express a broad range of developmentally distinct markers and proliferate extensively in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:113–118

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Suon S, Yang M, Iacovitti L (2006) Adult human bone marrow stromal spheres express neuronal traits in vitro and in a rat model of Parkinson’s disease. Brain Res 1106:46–51

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Svendsen CN, Clarke DJ, Rosser AE, Dunnett SB (1996) Survival and differentiation of rat and human epidermal growth factor-responsive precursor cells following grafting into the lesioned adult central nervous system. Exp Neurol 137:376–388

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sykova E, Jendelova P, Urdzikova L, Lesny P, Hejcl A (2006) Bone marrow stem cells and polymer hydrogels—two strategies for spinal cord injury repair. Cell Mol Neurobiol 26:1113–1129

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tang Y, Yasuhara T, Hara K, Matsukawa N, Maki M, Yu G, Xu L, Hess DC, Borlongan CV (2007) Transplantation of bone marrow-derived stem cells: a promising therapy for stroke. Cell Transplant 16:159–169

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Terada N, Hamazaki T, Oka M, Hoki M, Mastalerz DM, Nakano Y, Meyer EM, Morel L, Petersen BE, Scott EW (2002) Bone marrow cells adopt the phenotype of other cells by spontaneous cell fusion. Nature 416:542–545

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson L, Barraud P, Andersson E, Kirik D, Bjorklund A (2005) Identification of dopaminergic neurons of nigral and ventral tegmental area subtypes in grafts of fetal ventral mesencephalon based on cell morphology, protein expression, and efferent projections. J Neurosci 25:6467–6477

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thored P, Arvidsson A, Cacci E, Ahlenius H, Kallur T, Darsalia V, Ekdahl CT, Kokaia Z, Lindvall O (2006) Persistent production of neurons from adult brain stem cells during recovery after stroke. Stem Cells 24:739–747

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Timmer M, Grosskreutz J, Schlesinger F, Krampfl K, Wesemann M, Just L, Bufler J, Grothe C (2006) Dopaminergic properties and function after grafting of attached neural precursor cultures. Neurobiol Dis 21:587–606

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Totoiu MO, Nistor GI, Lane TE, Keirstead HS (2004) Remyelination, axonal sparing, and locomotor recovery following transplantation of glial-committed progenitor cells into the MHV model of multiple sclerosis. Exp Neurol 187:254–265

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tsai MS, Hwang SM, Tsai YL, Cheng FC, Lee JL, Chang YJ (2006) Clonal amniotic fluid-derived stem cells express characteristics of both mesenchymal and neural stem cells. Biol Reprod 74:545–551

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Turnpenny L, Brickwood S, Spalluto CM, Piper K, Cameron IT, Wilson DI, Hanley NA (2003) Derivation of human embryonic germ cells: an alternative source of pluripotent stem cells. Stem Cells 21:598–609

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turnpenny L, Spalluto CM, Perrett RM, O’Shea M, Hanley KP, Cameron IT, Wilson DI, Hanley NA (2006) Evaluating human embryonic germ cells: concord and conflict as pluripotent stem cells. Stem Cells 24:212–220

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tuszynski MH, Thal L, Pay M, Salmon DP, HS U, Bakay R, Patel P, Blesch A, Vahlsing HL, Ho G, Tong G, Potkin SG, Fallon J, Hansen L, Mufson EJ, Kordower JH, Gall C, Conner J (2005) A phase 1 clinical trial of nerve growth factor gene therapy for Alzheimer disease. Nat Med 11:551–555

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vazey EM, Chen K, Hughes SM, Connor B (2006) Transplanted adult neural progenitor cells survive, differentiate and reduce motor function impairment in a rodent model of Huntington’s disease. Exp Neurol 199:384–396

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Villa A, Navarro-Galve B, Bueno C, Franco S, Blasco MA, Martinez-Serrano A (2004) Long-term molecular and cellular stability of human neural stem cell lines. Exp Cell Res 294:559–570

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang L, Zhang Z, Wang Y, Zhang R, Chopp M (2004) Treatment of stroke with erythropoietin enhances neurogenesis and angiogenesis and improves neurological function in rats. Stroke 35:1732–1737

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weimann JM, Charlton CA, Brazelton TR, Hackman RC, Blau HM (2003) Contribution of transplanted bone marrow cells to Purkinje neurons in human adult brains. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:2088–2093

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Winkler J, Thal LJ (1995) Effects of nerve growth factor treatment on rats with lesions of the nucleus basalis magnocellularis produced by ibotenic acid, quisqualic acid, and AMPA. Exp Neurol 136:234–250

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Winkler C, Kirik D, Bjorklund A, Dunnett SB (2000) Transplantation in the rat model of Parkinson’s disease: ectopic versus homotopic graft placement. Prog Brain Res 127:233–265

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Winkler C, Kirik D, Bjorklund A, Cenci MA (2002) L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia in the intrastriatal 6-hydroxydopamine model of Parkinson’s disease: relation to motor and cellular parameters of nigrostriatal function. Neurobiol Dis 10:165–186

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wislet-Gendebien S, Hans G, Leprince P, Rigo JM, Moonen G, Rogister B (2005) Plasticity of cultured mesenchymal stem cells: switch from nestin-positive to excitable neuron-like phenotype. Stem Cells 23:392–402

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wright LS, Prowse KR, Wallace K, Linskens MH, Svendsen CN (2006) Human progenitor cells isolated from the developing cortex undergo decreased neurogenesis and eventual senescence following expansion in vitro. Exp Cell Res 312:2107–2120

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xiao J, Nan Z, Motooka Y, Low WC (2005) Transplantation of a novel cell line population of umbilical cord blood stem cells ameliorates neurological deficits associated with ischemic brain injury. Stem Cells Dev 14:722–733

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yamashita T, Ninomiya M, Hernandez AP, Garcia-Verdugo JM, Sunabori T, Sakaguchi M, Adachi K, Kojima T, Hirota Y, Kawase T, Araki N, Abe K, Okano H, Sawamoto K (2006) Subventricular zone-derived neuroblasts migrate and differentiate into mature neurons in the post-stroke adult striatum. J Neurosci 26:6627–6636

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yasuhara T, Date I (2007) Intracerebral transplantation of genetically engineered cells for Parkinson’s disease: toward clinical application. Cell Transplant 16:125–132

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yoon SH, Shim YS, Park YH, Chung JK, Nam JH, Kim MO, Park HC, Park SR, Min BH, Kim EY, Choi BH, Park H, Ha Y (2007) Complete spinal cord injury treatment using autologous bone marrow cell transplantation and bone marrow stimulation with granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF): phase I/II clinical trial. Stem Cells 25:2066–2073

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zeng X, Cai J, Chen J, Luo Y, You ZB, Fotter E, Wang Y, Harvey B, Miura T, Backman C, Chen GJ, Rao MS, Freed WJ (2004) Dopaminergic differentiation of human embryonic stem cells. Stem Cells 22:925–940

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao MZ, Nonoguchi N, Ikeda N, Watanabe T, Furutama D, Miyazawa D, Funakoshi H, Kajimoto Y, Nakamura T, Dezawa M, Shibata MA, Otsuki Y, Coffin RS, Liu WD, Kuroiwa T, Miyatake S (2006) Novel therapeutic strategy for stroke in rats by bone marrow stromal cells and ex vivo HGF gene transfer with HSV-1 vector. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 26:1176–1188

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu J, Wu X, Zhang HL (2005) Adult neural stem cell therapy: expansion in vitro, tracking in vivo and clinical transplantation. Curr Drug Targets 6:97–110

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zietlow R, Pekarik V, Armstrong RJ, Tyers P, Dunnett SB, Rosser AE (2005) The survival of neural precursor cell grafts is influenced by in vitro expansion. J Anat 207:227–240

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zigmond MJ, Abercrombie ED, Berger TW, Grace AA, Stricker EM (1990) Compensations after lesions of central dopaminergic neurons: some clinical and basic implications. Trends Neurosci 13:290–296

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Brain Repair Group, School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF10 3US, UK

    Rike Zietlow, Emma L. Lane, Stephen B. Dunnett & Anne E. Rosser

  2. Department of Neurology and Medical Genetics, University of Wales College of Medicine, Health Park, Cardiff, CF14 4XN, UK

    Anne E. Rosser

Authors
  1. Rike Zietlow
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Emma L. Lane
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Stephen B. Dunnett
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Anne E. Rosser
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rike Zietlow.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Zietlow, R., Lane, E.L., Dunnett, S.B. et al. Human stem cells for CNS repair. Cell Tissue Res 331, 301–322 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00441-007-0488-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00441-007-0488-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation