Abstract
Malaria-associated bacteremia accounts for up to one-third of deaths from severe malaria, and non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) has been reported as a major complication of severe malarial infection. Patients who develop NTS bacteremia during Plasmodium infection show higher mortality rates than individuals with malaria alone. Systemic bacteremia can be caused by a wound or translocation from epithelial or endothelial sites. NTS is an intestinal pathogen, however the contribution of bacterial translocation from the intestinal tract during Plasmodium infection is not well studied. Here, we investigated the integrity of the intestinal barrier function of P. chabaudi-infected mice using large molecules and Salmonella infection. Intestinal histology and the adaptive immune response to malaria were also studied using light microscopy and flow cytometry. P. chabaudi infection compromised intestinal barrier function, which led to increased intestinal cellular infiltration. In addition, we observed increased serum lipopolysaccharide binding protein and leakage of soluble molecules from the intestine into the blood in infected mice. Plasmodium infection also increased intestinal translocation and dissemination of NTS to the liver. The adaptive immune response to P. chabaudi infection was also significantly impacted by NTS translocation. Reduced B and T cell activation were observed in co-infected animals, suggesting interference in the malaria-specific immune responses by bacteremia. These studies demonstrate that P. chabaudi infection induces failure of the barrier function of the intestinal wall and enhanced intestinal bacterial translocation, affecting anti-malarial immunity.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Brenchley JM, Douek DC (2012) Microbial translocation across the GI tract. Annu Rev Immunol 30:149–173
Brugat T, Cunningham D, Sodenkamp J, Coomes S, Wilson M, Spence PJ, Jarra W, Thompson J, Scudamore C, Langhorne J (2014) Sequestration and histopathology in Plasmodium chabaudi malaria are influenced by the immune response in an organ-specific manner. Cell Microbiol 16:687–700
Chau JY, Tiffany CM, Nimishakavi S, Lawrence JA, Pakpour N, Mooney JP, Lokken KL, Caughey GH, Tsolis RM, Luckhart S (2013) Malaria-associated L-arginine deficiency induces mast cell-associated disruption to intestinal barrier defenses against nontyphoidal Salmonella bacteremia. Infect Immun 81:3515–3526
Church J, Maitland K (2014) Invasive bacterial co-infection in African children with Plasmodium falciparum malaria: a systematic review. BMC Med 12:31–7015-12-31
Church JA, Nyamako L, Olupot-Olupot P, Maitland K, Urban BC (2016) Increased adhesion of Plasmodium falciparum infected erythrocytes to ICAM-1 in children with acute intestinal injury. Malar J 15:54–016-1110-3
Cong Y, Feng T, Fujihashi K, Schoeb TR, Elson CO (2009) A dominant, coordinated T regulatory cell-IgA response to the intestinal microbiota. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106:19256–19261
Cunnington AJ, Njie M, Correa S, Takem EN, Riley EM, Walther M (2012) Prolonged neutrophil dysfunction after Plasmodium falciparum malaria is related to hemolysis and heme oxygenase-1 induction. J Immunol 189:5336–5346
Davenport GC, Hittner JB, Otieno V, Karim Z, Mukundan H, Fenimore PW, Hengartner NW, McMahon BH, Kempaiah P, Ong'echa JM, Perkins DJ (2016) Reduced parasite burden in children with falciparum malaria and bacteremia coinfections: role of mediators of inflammation. Mediat Inflamm 2016:4286576
Eguale T, Gebreyes WA, Asrat D, Alemayehu H, Gunn JS, Engidawork E (2015) Non-typhoidal Salmonella serotypes, antimicrobial resistance and co-infection with parasites among patients with diarrhea and other gastrointestinal complaints in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. BMC Infect Dis 15:497–015-1235-y
Fang L, Xu Z, Wang GS, Ji FY, Mei CX, Liu J, Wu GM (2014) Directed evolution of an LBP/CD14 inhibitory peptide and its anti-endotoxin activity. PLoS One 9:e101406
Feng T, Wang L, Schoeb TR, Elson CO, Cong Y (2010) Microbiota innate stimulation is a prerequisite for T cell spontaneous proliferation and induction of experimental colitis. J Exp Med 207:1321–1332
Joly Condette C, Khorsi-Cauet H, Morliere P, Zabijak L, Reygner J, Bach V, Gay-Queheillard J (2014) Increased gut permeability and bacterial translocation after chronic chlorpyrifos exposure in rats. PLoS One 9:e102217
Lokken KL, Stull-Lane AR, Poels K, Tsolis M (2018) Malaria parasite-mediated alteration of macrophage function and increased iron availability predispose to disseminated non-typhoidal salmonella infection. Infect Immun 9:e00301–e00318
Molyneux ME, Looareesuwan S, Menzies IS, Grainger SL, Phillips RE, Wattanagoon Y, Thompson RP, Warrell DA (1989) Reduced hepatic blood flow and intestinal malabsorption in severe falciparum malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 40:470–476
Mooney JP, Lee SJ, Lokken KL, Nanton MR, Nuccio SP, McSorley SJ, Tsolis RM (2015a) Transient loss of protection afforded by a live attenuated non-typhoidal Salmonella vaccine in mice co-infected with malaria. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 9:e0004027
Mooney JP, Lokken KL, Byndloss MX, George MD, Velazquez EM, Faber F, Butler BP, Walker GT, Ali MM, Potts R, Tiffany C, Ahmer BM, Luckhart S, Tsolis RM (2015b) Inflammation-associated alterations to the intestinal microbiota reduce colonization resistance against non-typhoidal salmonella during concurrent malaria parasite infection. Sci Rep 5:14603
Nadjm B, Amos B, Mtove G, Ostermann J, Chonya S, Wangai H, Kimera J, Msuya W, Mtei F, Dekker D, Malahiyo R, Olomi R, Crump JA, Whitty CJ, Reyburn H (2010) WHO guidelines for antimicrobial treatment in children admitted to hospital in an area of intense Plasmodium falciparum transmission: prospective study. BMJ 340:c1350
Olotu A, Fegan G, Wambua J, Nyangweso G, Leach A, Lievens M, Kaslow DC, Njuguna P, Marsh K, Bejon P (2016) Seven-year efficacy of RTS,S/AS01 malaria vaccine among young African children. N Engl J Med 374:2519–2529
Roux CM, Butler BP, Chau JY, Paixao TA, Cheung KW, Santos RL, Luckhart S, Tsolis RM (2010) Both hemolytic anemia and malaria parasite-specific factors increase susceptibility to nontyphoidal salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium infection in mice. Infect Immun 78:1520–1527
Spence PJ, Langhorne J (2012) T cell control of malaria pathogenesis. Curr Opin Immunol 24:444–448
Taniguchi T, Miyauchi E, Nakamura S, Hirai M, Suzue K, Imai T, Nomura T, Handa T, Okada H, Shimokawa C, Onishi R, Olia A, Hirata J, Tomita H, Ohno H, Horii T, Hisaeda H (2015) Plasmodium berghei ANKA causes intestinal malaria associated with dysbiosis. Sci Rep 5:15699
Vaishnavi C (2013) Translocation of gut flora and its role in sepsis. Indian J Med Microbiol 31:334–342
Van Santen S, de Mast Q, Swinkels DW, van der Ven AJ (2013) The iron link between malaria and invasive non-typhoid Salmonella infections. Trends Parasitol 29:220–227
Villarino NF, LeCleir GR, Denny JE, Dearth SP, Harding CL, Sloan SS, Gribble JL, Campagna SR, Wilhelm SW, Schmidt NW (2016) Composition of the gut microbiota modulates the severity of malaria. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 113:2235–2240
WHO (2017) World malaria report 2017. Switzerland, Geneva
Wilairatana P, Meddings JB, Ho M, Vannaphan S, Looareesuwan S (1997) Increased gastrointestinal permeability in patients with Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Clin Infect Dis 24:430–435
Wu W, Liu HP, Chen F, Liu H, Cao AT, Yao S, Sun M, Evans-Marin HL, Zhao Y, Zhao Q, Duck LW, Elson CO, Liu Z, Cong Y (2016) Commensal A4 bacteria inhibit intestinal Th2-cell responses through induction of dendritic cell TGF-beta production. Eur J Immunol 46:1162–1167
Yooseph S, Kirkness EF, Tran TM, Harkins DM, Jones MB, Torralba MG, O'Connell E, Nutman TB, Doumbo S, Doumbo OK, Traore B, Crompton PD, Nelson KE (2015) Stool microbiota composition is associated with the prospective risk of Plasmodium falciparum infection. BMC Genomics 16:631–015-1819-3
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Mark Griffin in the Department of Microbiology and Immunology Flow Cytometry and Cell Sorting Core Facility for his kind assistance. In addition, we appreciate the members of the Chopra lab for generous experimental help.
Funding
Funding was provided by UTMB Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, NIH (R01AI089953 (RS)) and the Saudi Arabian Cultural Mission, Jazan University.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
All applicable international, national, and/or institutional guidelines for the care and use of animals were followed. All procedures performed in studies involving animals were in accordance with the ethical standards and protocols approved by the University of Texas Medical Branch Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Additional information
Section Editor: Tobili Sam-Yellowe
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Alamer, E., Carpio, V.H., Ibitokou, S.A. et al. Dissemination of non-typhoidal Salmonella during Plasmodium chabaudi infection affects anti-malarial immunity. Parasitol Res 118, 2277–2285 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-019-06349-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-019-06349-z