Abstract
Visual similarity effects are pervasive in masked priming (e.g., T4BLE→TABLE; obiect→OBJECT; docurnent→DOCUMENT) and can be easily explained in terms of uncertainty regarding letter identity. However, recent research failed to show visual similarity effects for primes containing accented vowels (e.g., féliz-FELIZ behaves as fáliz-FELIZ [happy in Spanish]). This null effect has been taken to suggest that accented and non-accented vowels (e.g., é and e) activate completely distinct representations. However, priming effects are reinstated for non-accented vowels (e.g., facil-FÁCIL < fecil-FÁCIL [easy in Spanish]). Here we tested the hypothesis that the lack of priming effects for primes containing accented vowels is a simple consequence of the saliency of the accent marks. To investigate this issue, we conducted a masked priming lexical decision experiment in which we minimized the saliency of the diacritical marks by using primes containing the letter i (i.e., a letter that contains itself a glyph over the letter). We manipulated prime-target visual similarity and the presence/absence of an accented vowel in the prime (e.g., obieto-OBJETO vs. obaeto-OBJETO; obíeto-OBJETO vs. obáeto-OBJETO [object in Spanish]). Results showed a sizeable visual similarity effect regardless of whether the prime was accented or not. Therefore, these findings suggest that, at least in scripts like Spanish, there is nothing special about the processing of accented vs. unaccented vowels once the saliency of the diacritical marks is reduced.
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Notes
As occurs in other languages, some loan words in English can be written with the original diacritics (e.g., café, naïve).
We thank Steve Lupker for this suggestion.
The only exception is the Turkish alphabet created after Atatürk's Reforms in 1928, in which there is a dotted i (/i/) and a dotless ı (/ɯ/).
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Funding
The research reported in this article has been partially supported by Grant PSI2017-86210-P (Manuel Perea) from the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation, and Universities and by Grant GV/2020/074 (Ana Marcet) from the Department of Innovation, Universities, Science and Digital Society of the Valencian Government.
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Appendices
Appendix A
List of stimuli presented in quintuplets: accented visually similar prime; accented visually dissimilar prime, non-accented visually similar prime; non-accented visually; TARGET.
Words: masaie, masaíe, masaoe, masaóe, MASAJE; carcaiada, carcaíada, carcaoada, carcaóada, CARCAJADA; mensaie, mensaíe, mensaoe, mensaóe, MENSAJE; suieto, suíeto, suaeto, suáeto, SUJETO; taiante, taíante, tauante, taúante, TAJANTE; cerraiero, cerraíero, cerraoero, cerraóero, CERRAJERO; enveiecer, enveíecer, enveaecer, enveáecer, ENVEJECER; paiarita, paíarita, paearita, paéarita, PAJARITA; cerroio, cerroío, cerroeo, cerroéo, CERROJO; viaiero, viaíero, viauero, viaúero, VIAJERO; deiar, deíar, deuar, deúar, DEJAR; aieno, aíeno, aoeno, aóeno, AJENO; pareia, pareía, pareoa, pareóa, PAREJA; vieio, vieío, vieao, vieáo, VIEJO; caiero, caíero, cauero, caúero, CAJERO; obietivo, obíetivo, obaetivo, obáetivo, OBJETIVO; dopaie, dopaíe, dopaoe, dopaóe, DOPAJE; nochevieia, nochevieía, nochevieoa, nochevieóa, NOCHEVIEJA; renacuaio, renacuaío, renacuaeo, renacuaéo, RENACUAJO; graniero, graníero, granaero, granáero, GRANJERO; bandeia, bandeía, bandeoa, bandeóa, BANDEJA; maneiar, maneíar, maneuar, maneúar, MANEJAR; subiuntivo, subíuntivo, subauntivo, subáuntivo, SUBJUNTIVO; sonaiero, sonaíero, sonaoero, sonaóero, SONAJERO; rodaie, rodaíe, rodaoe, rodaóe, RODAJE; fichaie, fichaíe, fichaue, fichaúe, FICHAJE; aterrizaie, aterrizaíe, aterrizaoe, aterrizaóe, ATERRIZAJE; coniunto, coníunto, coneunto, conéunto, CONJUNTO; salvaie, salvaíe, salvaoe, salvaóe, SALVAJE; aconseiar, aconseíar, aconseoar, aconseóar, ACONSEJAR; relaiante, relaíante, relaeante, relaéante, RELAJANTE; maquillaie, maquillaíe, maquillaue, maquillaúe, MAQUILLAJE; trabaiador, trabaíador, trabauador, trabaúador, TRABAJADOR; esponia, esponía, esponea, esponéa, ESPONJA; forceiear, forceíear, forceuear, forceúear, FORCEJEAR; narania, naranía, naranea, naranéa, NARANJA; eiercicio, eíercicio, euercicio, eúercicio, EJERCICIO; camuflaie, camuflaíe, camuflaoe, camuflaóe, CAMUFLAJE; personaie, personaíe, personaoe, personaóe, PERSONAJE; conserie, conseríe, conserae, conseráe, CONSERJE; meiorar, meíorar, meaorar, meáorar, MEJORAR; espionaie, espionaíe, espionaue, espionaúe, ESPIONAJE; aiustar, aíustar, aeustar, aéustar, AJUSTAR; debaio, debaío, debaeo, debaéo, DEBAJO; tarieta, taríeta, taraeta, taráeta, TARJETA; compleio, compleío, compleao, compleáo, COMPLEJO; mensaiero, mensaíero, mensauero, mensaúero, MENSAJERO; suietador, suíetador, suoetador, suóetador, SUJETADOR; bereniena, bereníena, berenaena, berenáena, BERENJENA; abeia, abeía, abeua, abeúa, ABEJA; arbitraie, arbitraíe, arbitraue, arbitraúe, ARBITRAJE; montaie, montaíe, montaue, montaúe, MONTAJE; abaio, abaío, abauo, abaúo, ABAJO; azuleio, azuleío, azuleuo, azuleúo, AZULEJO; teiado, teíado, teuado, teúado, TEJADO; iniusticia, iníusticia, ineusticia, inéusticia, INJUSTICIA; extraniero, extraníero, extranaero, extranáero, EXTRANJERO; carruaie, carruaíe, carruaue, carruaúe, CARRUAJE; burbuia, burbuía, burbuea, burbuéa, BURBUJA; vendaie, vendaíe, vendaoe, vendaóe, VENDAJE; chantaie, chantaíe, chantaoe, chantaóe, CHANTAJE; dibuiar, dibuíar, dibuoar, dibuóar, DIBUJAR; adiunto, adíunto, adeunto, adéunto, ADJUNTO; aiusticiar, aíusticiar, aeusticiar, aéusticiar, AJUSTICIAR; potaie, potaíe, potaue, potaúe, POTAJE; bricolaie, bricolaíe, bricolaue, bricolaúe, BRICOLAJE; eiercer, eíercer, eaercer, eáercer, EJERCER; muier, muíer, muaer, muáer, MUJER; coniura, coníura, conoura, conóura, CONJURA; pegaioso, pegaíoso, pegaeoso, pegaéoso, PEGAJOSO; aiedrez, aíedrez, auedrez, aúedrez, AJEDREZ; coneio, coneío, coneuo, coneúo, CONEJO; ciruiano, ciruíano, cirueano, ciruéano, CIRUJANO; reloiero, reloíero, reloaero, reloáero, RELOJERO; floio, floío, floeo, floéo, FLOJO; oveia, oveía, oveua, oveúa, OVEJA; preiuicio, preíuicio, preouicio, preóuicio, PREJUICIO; adietivo, adíetivo, adaetivo, adáetivo, ADJETIVO; infrarroios, infrarroíos, infrarrouos, infrarroúos, INFRARROJOS; rebaia, rebaía, rebaua, rebaúa, REBAJA; sabotaie, sabotaíe, sabotaoe, sabotaóe, SABOTAJE; subietivo, subíetivo, subaetivo, subáetivo, SUBJETIVO; empuiar, empuíar, emopuear, emóúúéáú, EMPUJAR; eiemplo, eíemplo, eaemplo, eáemplo, EJEMPLO; reciclaie, reciclaíe, reciclaue, reciclaúe, RECICLAJE; calleiero, calleíero, calleaero, calleáero, CALLEJERO; porcentaie, porcentaíe, porcentaue, porcentaúe, PORCENTAJE; paisaie, paisaíe, paisaue, paisaúe, PAISAJE; semeiante, semeíante, semeuante, semeúante, SEMEJANTE; maiestad, maíestad, maoestad, maóestad, MAJESTAD; iniurias, iníurias, inaurias, ináurias, INJURIAS; estropaio, estropaío, estropaeo, estropaéo, ESTROPAJO; pelirroio, pelirroío, pelirroao, pelirroáo, PELIRROJO; pasaiero, pasaíero, pasauero, pasaúero, PASAJERO; conseio, conseío, conseao, conseáo, CONSEJO; luiosa, luíosa, lueosa, luéosa, LUJOSA; caniear, caníear, canuear, canúear, CANJEAR; ventaia, ventaía, ventaea, ventaéa, VENTAJA; leiano, leíano, leuano, leúano, LEJANO; espeio, espeío, espeao, espeáo, ESPEJO; moiado, moíado, mouado, moúado, MOJADO; bruia, bruía, bruea, bruéa, BRUJA; obieto, obíeto, obueto, obúeto, OBJETO; equipaie, equipaíe, equipaoe, equipaóe, EQUIPAJE; homenaie, homenaíe, homenaue, homenaúe, HOMENAJE; oieras, oíeras, oueras, oúeras, OJERAS; conceial, conceíal, conceoal, conceóal, CONCEJAL; cangreio, cangreío, cangreao, cangreáo, CANGREJO; embaiador, embaíador, embauador, embaúador, EMBAJADOR; patinaie, patinaíe, patinaue, patinaúe, PATINAJE; garaie, garaíe, garaoe, garaóe, GARAJE; desventaia, desventaía, desventaoa, desventaóa, DESVENTAJA; reportaie, reportaíe, reportaoe, reportaóe, REPORTAJE; tatuaie, tatuaíe, tatuaoe, tatuaóe, TATUAJE; refleio, refleío, refleao, refleáo, REFLEJO; hoialata, hoíalata, hoealata, hoéalata, HOJALATA; lenteias, lenteías, lenteoas, lenteóas, LENTEJAS; lenguaie, lenguaíe, lenguaoe, lenguaóe, LENGUAJE; navaia, navaía, navaea, navaéa, NAVAJA; oruio, oruío, orueo, oruéo, ORUJO; moraleia, moraleía, moraleua, moraleúa, MORALEJA; oreia, oreía, oreua, oreúa, OREJA; eiecutivo, eíecutivo, euecutivo, eúecutivo, EJECUTIVO; hoialdre, hoíaldre, houaldre, hoúaldre, HOJALDRE.
Nonwords: manuie, manuíe, manuoe, manuóe, MANUJE; cosmaieda, cosmaíeda, cosmaoeda, cosmaóeda, COSMAJEDA; ranvaie, ranvaíe, ranvaoe, ranvaóe, RANVAJE; tuiemo, tuíemo, tuaemo, tuáemo, TUJEMO; baiento, baíento, baoento, baóento, BAJENTO; darreiaro, darreíaro, darreoaro, darreóaro, DARREJARO; enmoiener, enmoíener, enmoaener, enmoáener, ENMOJENER; maiacisa, maíacisa, maeacisa, maéacisa, MAJACISA; celloia, celloía, celloea, celloéa, CELLOJA; liaiaro, liaíaro, liauaro, liaúaro, LIAJARO; geiar, geíar, geuar, geúar, GEJAR; eiore, eíore, euore, eúore, EJORE; maceia, maceía, maceoa, maceóa, MACEJA; dieie, dieíe, dieae, dieáe, DIEJE; caiena, caíena, caoena, caóena, CAJENA; osiitilo, osíitilo, osaitilo, osáitilo, OSJITILO; doduie, doduíe, doduoe, doduóe, DODUJE; gochibiuia, gochibiuía, gochibiuoa, gochibiuóa, GOCHIBIUJA; senaleaio, senaleaío, senaleaeo, senaleaéo, SENALEAJO; cleniero, cleníero, clenaero, clenáero, CLENJERO; tenceia, tenceía, tenceoa, tenceóa, TENCEJA; paceiar, paceíar, paceuar, paceúar, PACEJAR; solientido, solíentido, solaentido, soláentido, SOLJENTIDO; momaiera, momaíera, momaoera, momaóera, MOMAJERA; ropuie, ropuíe, ropuoe, ropuóe, ROPUJE; gilloie, gilloíe, gilloue, gilloúe, GILLOJE; acallipaie, acallipaíe, acallipaoe, acallipaóe, ACALLIPAJE; corionto, coríonto, coreonto, coréonto, CORJONTO; sarfaie, sarfaíe, sarfaoe, sarfaóe, SARFAJE; amarseiar, amarseíar, amarseoar, amarseóar, AMARSEJAR; pemaionte, pemaíonte, pemaeonte, pemaéonte, PEMAJONTE; machurraie, machurraíe, machurraue, machurraúe, MACHURRAJE; pramaiadar, pramaíadar, pramauadar, pramaúadar, PRAMAJADAR; escuria, escuría, escurea, escuréa, ESCURJA; bormeiear, bormeíear, bormeuear, bormeúear, BORMEJEAR; lacenia, lacenía, lacenea, lacenéa, LACENJA; eiarsinio, eíarsinio, euarsinio, eúarsinio, EJARSINIO; safudraie, safudraíe, safudraoe, safudraóe, SAFUDRAJE; palmoraie, palmoraíe, palmoraoe, palmoraóe, PALMORAJE; soncirie, sonciríe, soncirae, sonciráe, SONCIRJE; seionar, seíonar, seaonar, seáonar, SEJONAR; esciuraie, esciuraíe, esciuraue, esciuraúe, ESCIURAJE; aiundar, aíundar, aoundar, aóundar, AJUNDAR; detuia, detuía, detuea, detuéa, DETUJA; ponieta, poníeta, ponaeta, ponáeta, PONJETA; colcreio, colcreío, colcreao, colcreáo, COLCREJO; sunvaiemo, sunvaíemo, sunvauemo, sunvaúemo, SUNVAJEMO; muianabor, muíanabor, muoanabor, muóanabor, MUJANABOR; becerieca, beceríeca, beceraeca, beceráeca, BECERJECA; uceio, uceío, uceao, uceáo, UCEJO; angiflaie, angiflaíe, angiflaue, angiflaúe, ANGIFLAJE; penloie, penloíe, penloue, penloúe, PENLOJE; ameio, ameío, ameuo, ameúo, AMEJO; afudeia, afudeía, afudeua, afudeúa, AFUDEJA; beiodo, beíodo, beuodo, beúodo, BEJODO; iniartinia, iníartinia, ineartinia, inéartinia, INJARTINIA; erpreriero, erpreríero, erpreraero, erpreráero, ERPRERJERO; carroeia, carroeía, carroeua, carroeúa, CARROEJA; belmuia, belmuía, belmuea, belmuéa, BELMUJA; landaie, landaíe, landaoe, landaóe, LANDAJE; llentaie, llentaíe, llentaoe, llentaóe, LLENTAJE; sivuier, sivuíer, sivuoer, sivuóer, SIVUJER; etionto, etíonto, eteonto, etéonto, ETJONTO; aiartiniar, aíartiniar, aeartiniar, aéartiniar, AJARTINIAR; mocaie, mocaíe, mocaue, mocaúe, MOCAJE; fritocaie, fritocaíe, fritocaue, fritocaúe, FRITOCAJE; eioscer, eíoscer, eaoscer, eáoscer, EJOSCER; nuior, nuíor, nuaor, nuáor, NUJOR; caliora, calíora, calaora, caláora, CALJORA; mefaioto, mefaíoto, mefaeoto, mefaéoto, MEFAJOTO; aiaclad, aíaclad, auaclad, aúaclad, AJACLAD; coreia, coreía, coreua, coreúa, COREJA; cimuiaca, cimuíaca, cimueaca, cimuéaca, CIMUJACA; pemoiera, pemoíera, pemoaera, pemoáera, PEMOJERA; ploio, ploío, ploeo, ploéo, PLOJO; aceie, aceíe, aceue, aceúe, ACEJE; preiaicia, preíaicia, preoaicia, preóaicia, PREJAICIA; abiotilo, abíotilo, abaotilo, abáotilo, ABJOTILO; istrelleios, istrelleíos, istrelleuos, istrelleúos, ISTRELLEJOS; revoia, revoía, revoea, revoéa, REVOJA; mafonaie, mafonaíe, mafonaoe, mafonaóe, MAFONAJE; molietino, molíetino, molaetino, moláetino, MOLJETINO; egnuiar, egnuíar, egnuear, egnuéar, EGNUJAR; eiuldro, eíuldro, eauldro, eáuldro, EJULDRO; resifraie, resifraíe, resifraue, resifraúe, RESIFRAJE; zachoiera, zachoíera, zachoaera, zachoáera, ZACHOJERA; nompentaie, nompentaíe, nompentaue, nompentaúe, NOMPENTAJE; peimoie, peimoíe, peimoue, peimoúe, PEIMOJE; mecoiante, mecoíante, mecouante, mecoúante, MECOJANTE; paiusdad, paíusdad, paousdad, paóusdad, PAJUSDAD; ilienies, ilíenies, ilaenies, iláenies, ILJENIES; emblataio, emblataío, emblataeo, emblataéo, EMBLATAJO; melilloio, melilloío, melilloao, melilloáo, MELILLOJO; mavaiera, mavaíera, mavauera, mavaúera, MAVAJERA; corceio, corceío, corceao, corceáo, CORCEJO; tuioca, tuíoca, tuaoca, tuáoca, TUJOCA; coriear, coríear, coruear, corúear, CORJEAR; vantuia, vantuía, vantuea, vantuéa, VANTUJA; feiano, feíano, feuano, feúano, FEJANO; anceio, anceío, anceao, anceáo, ANCEJO; poiedo, poíedo, pouedo, poúedo, POJEDO; broio, broío, broeo, broéo, BROJO; utieta, utíeta, utoeta, utóeta, UTJETA; echiluie, echiluíe, echiluoe, echiluóe, ECHILUJE; bosuraie, bosuraíe, bosuraue, bosuraúe, BOSURAJE; oiefos, oíefos, ouefos, oúefos, OJEFOS; calmeial, calmeíal, calmeoal, calmeóal, CALMEJAL; calfreio, calfreío, calfreao, calfreáo, CALFREJO; andeiador, andeíador, andeuador, andeúador, ANDEJADOR; matecaie, matecaíe, matecaue, matecaúe, MATECAJE; faruie, faruíe, faruoe, faruóe, FARUJE; relsantaia, relsantaía, relsantaoa, relsantaóa, RELSANTAJA; redectaie, redectaíe, redectaoe, redectaóe, REDECTAJE; taloeia, taloeía, taloeoa, taloeóa, TALOEJA; detreio, detreío, detreao, detreáo, DETREJO; boiadasa, boíadasa, boeadasa, boéadasa, BOJADASA; fanteies, fanteíes, fanteoes, fanteóes, FANTEJES; vansuaie, vansuaíe, vansuaoe, vansuaóe, VANSUAJE; natuio, natuío, natueo, natuéo, NATUJO; ocuia, ocuía, ocuea, ocuéa, OCUJA; sonaneia, sonaneía, sonaneua, sonaneúa, SONANEJA; oceio, oceío, oceuo, oceúo, OCEJO; aieculisa, aíeculisa, aueculisa, aúeculisa, AJECULISA; hoiectre, hoíectre, houectre, hoúectre, HOJECTRE.
Appendix B (code for the BRMS analyses)
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Perea, M., Baciero, A. & Marcet, A. Does a mark make a difference? Visual similarity effects with accented vowels. Psychological Research 85, 2279–2290 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-020-01405-1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-020-01405-1