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Dark chocolate reduces endothelial dysfunction after successive breath-hold dives in cool water

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Abstract

Objective

The aim of this study is to observe the effects of dark chocolate on endothelial function after a series of successive apnea dives in non-thermoneutral water.

Methods

Twenty breath-hold divers were divided into two groups: a control group (8 males and 2 females) and a chocolate group (9 males and 1 female). The control group was asked to perform a series of dives to 20 m adding up to 20 min in the quiet diving pool of Conflans-Ste-Honorine (Paris, France), water temperature was 27 °C. The chocolate group performed the dives 1 h after ingestion of 30 g of dark chocolate. Flow-mediated dilatation (FMD), digital photoplethysmography, nitric oxide (NO), and peroxynitrite ONOO−) levels were measured before and after each series of breath-hold dives.

Results

A significant decrease in FMD was observed in the control group after the dives (95.28 ± 2.9 % of pre-dive values, p < 0.001) while it was increased in the chocolate group (104.1 ± 2.9 % of pre-dive values, p < 0.01). A decrease in the NO level was observed in the control group (86.76 ± 15.57 %, p < 0.05) whereas no difference was shown in the chocolate group (98.44 ± 31.86 %, p > 0.05). No differences in digital photoplethysmography and peroxynitrites were observed between before and after the dives.

Conclusion

Antioxidants contained in dark chocolate scavenge free radicals produced during breath-hold diving. Ingestion of 30 g of dark chocolate 1 h before the dive can thus prevent endothelial dysfunction which can be observed after a series of breath-hold dives.

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Abbreviations

AT II:

Angiotensin II

BH2 :

Dihydrobiopterin

BH4 :

Tetrahydrobiopterin

cGMP:

Cyclic guanosine monophosphate

eNOS:

Endothelial nitric oxide synthase

ET-1:

Endothelin-1

FMD:

Flow-mediated dilation

GTP:

Guanosine triphosphate

H2O2 :

Hydrogen peroxide

NADPH:

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

NO:

Nitric oxide

ONOO− :

Peroxynitrites

PI3K:

Phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase

PO2 :

Oxygen pressure

PPT:

Peak-to-peak time

RAAS:

Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system

rpm:

Revolutions per minute

sGC:

Soluble guanylate cyclase

SI:

Stiffness index

t test:

Student's test

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Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the divers for participating in this study. The study is part of the Phypode Project under a Marie Curie Initial Training Network programme.

Conflict of interest

The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Haute Ecole Paul Henri Spaak Brussels, Brussels, Belgium

    Sigrid Theunissen, Julie Schumacker, François Guerrero, Frauke Tillmans, Antoine Boutros, Kate Lambrechts, Aleksandra Mazur, Massimo Pieri, Peter Germonpré & Costantino Balestra

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  1. Sigrid Theunissen
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  2. Julie Schumacker
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  3. François Guerrero
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  4. Frauke Tillmans
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  5. Antoine Boutros
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  6. Kate Lambrechts
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  7. Aleksandra Mazur
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  8. Massimo Pieri
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  9. Peter Germonpré
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  10. Costantino Balestra
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sigrid Theunissen.

Additional information

Communicated by Dag Linnarsson.

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Theunissen, S., Schumacker, J., Guerrero, F. et al. Dark chocolate reduces endothelial dysfunction after successive breath-hold dives in cool water. Eur J Appl Physiol 113, 2967–2975 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-013-2732-6

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-013-2732-6

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