Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Weight, muscle and bone loss during space flight: another perspective

  • Invited Review
  • Published:
European Journal of Applied Physiology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Space flight is a new experience for humans. Humans adapt if not perfectly, rather well to life without gravity. There is a reductive remodeling of the musculo-skeletal system. Protein is lost from muscles and calcium from bones with anti-gravity functions. The observed biochemical and physiological changes reflect this accommodative process. The two major direct effects of the muscle loss are weakness post-flight and the increased incidence of low back ache pre- and post-flight. The muscle protein losses are compromised by the inability to maintain energy balance inflight. Voluntary dietary intake is reduced during space flight by ~20 %. These adaptations to weightlessness leave astronauts ill-equipped for life with gravity. Exercise, the obvious counter-measure has been repeatedly tried and since the muscle and bone losses persist it is not unreasonable to assume that success has been limited at best. Nevertheless, more than 500 people have now flown in space for up to 1 year and have done remarkably well. This review addresses the question of whether enough is now known about these three problems (negative energy balance, muscle loss and bone loss) for to the risks to be considered either acceptable or correctible enough to meet the requirements for a Mars mission.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Acheson KJ, Decombaz J, Piguet-Welsch C, Montigon F, Decarli B, Bartholdi I, Fern EB (1995) Energy, protein, and substrate metabolism in simulated microgravity. Am J Physiol (Regul Integ) 269:R252–R260

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Akima H, Ushiyama J, Kubo J, Tonosaki S, Itoh M, Kawakami Y, Fukuoka H, Kanehisa H, Fukunaga T (2003) Resistance training during unweighting maintains muscle size and function in human calf. Med Sci Sports Exerc 35:655–662

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alkner BA, Tesch PA (2004) Knee extensor and plantar flexor muscle size and function following 90 days of bed rest with or without resistance exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 93:294–305

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Armbrecht G, Belavy DL, Gast U, Bongrazio M, Touby F, Beller G, Roth HJ, Perschel FH, Rittweger J, Felsenberg D (2010) Resistive vibration exercise attenuates bone and muscle atrophy in 56 days of bed rest: biochemical markers of bone metabolism. Osteoporos Int 21:597–607

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin KM, Haddad F (2001) Effects of different activity and inactivity paradigms on myosin heavy chain gene expression in striated muscle. J Appl Physiol 90:345–357

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bamman MM, Clarke MS, Feeback DL, Talmadge RJ, Stevens BR, Lieberman SA, Greenisen MC (1998) Impact of resistance exercise during bed rest on skeletal muscle sarcopenia and myosin isoform distribution. J Appl Physiol 84:157–163

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Belavy DL, Hides JA, Wilson SJ, Stanton W, Dimeo FC, Rittweger J, Felsenberg D, Richardson CA (2008) Resistive simulated weightbearing exercise with whole body vibration reduces lumbar spine deconditioning in bed-rest. Spine 33:E121–E131

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Belavy DL, Miokovic T, Armbrecht G, Rittweger J, Felsenberg D (2009) Resistive vibration exercise reduces lower limb muscle atrophy during 56-day bed-rest. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact 9:225–235

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Belavy DL, Armbrecht G, Gast U, Richardson CA, Hides JA, Felsenberg D (2010) Countermeasures against lumbar spine deconditioning in prolonged bed rest: resistive exercise with and without whole body vibration. J Appl Physiol 109:1801–1811

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bergouignan A, Momken I, Schoeller DA, Normand S, Zahariev A, Lescure B, Simon C, Blanc S (2010) Regulation of energy balance during long-term physical inactivity induced by bed rest with and without exercise training. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95:1045–1053

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blanc S, Stein TP (2011) Does protein supplementation prevent muscle disuse atrophy and loss of strength? Crit Rev Food Sci 11:828–839

    Google Scholar 

  • Cavanagh PR, Licata AA, Rice AJ (2005) Exercise and pharmacological countermeasures for bone loss during long-duration space flight. Gravit Space Biol Bull 18:39–58

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cochrane DJ, Loram ID, Stannard SR, Rittweger J (2009) Changes in joint angle, muscle-tendon complex length, muscle contractile tissue displacement, and modulation of EMG activity during acute whole-body vibration. Muscle Nerve 40:420–429

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Convertino VA (1990) Physiological adaptations to weightlessness: effects on exercise and work performance. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 18:119–166

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Edgerton VR, Roy RR (eds) (1994) Neuromuscular adaptation to actual and simulated spaceflight. American Physiological Society, Bethesda

    Google Scholar 

  • Elango R, Ball RO, Pencharz PB (2008) Individual amino acid requirements in humans: an update. Curr Opinion Clin Nutr Metab Care 11:34–39

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrando AA, Lane HW, Stuart CA, Davis-Street J, Wolfe RR (1996) Prolonged bed rest decreases skeletal muscle and whole body protein synthesis. Am J Physiol (Endo Metab) 270:E627–E633

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrando AA, Tipton KD, Bamman MM, Wolfe RR (1997) Resistance exercise maintains skeletal muscle protein synthesis during bed rest. J Appl Physiol 82:807–810

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrando AA, Stuart CA, Sheffield-Moore M, Wolfe RR (1999) Inactivity amplifies the catabolic response of skeletal muscle to cortisol. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84:3515–3521

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrando AA, Paddon-Jones D, Wolfe RR (2002) Alterations in protein metabolism during space flight and inactivity. Nutrition 18:837–841

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fitts RH (1996) Muscle fatigue: the cellular aspects. Am J Sports Med 24:S9–S13

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fitts RH, Riley DR, Widrick JJ (2000) Physiology of a microgravity environment invited review: microgravity and skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 89:823–839

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fitts RH, Riley DR, Widrick JJ (2001) Functional and structural adaptations of skeletal muscle to microgravity. J Exp Biol 204:3201–3208

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fitts RH, Trappe SW, Costill DL, Gallagher PM, Creer AC, Colloton PA, Peters JR, Romatowski JG, Bain JL, Riley DA (2010) Prolonged space flight-induced alterations in the structure and function of human skeletal muscle fibres. J Physiol 588:3567–3592

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson JN, Halliday D, Morrison WL, Stoward PJ, Hornsby GA, Watt PW, Murdoch G, Rennie AJ (1987) Decrease in human quadriceps muscle protein turnover consequent upon leg immobilization. Clin Sci 72:503–509

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grigorev AI, Larina IM, Noskov VB, Menshtkin VV, Natochkin IV (1996) Effect of short- and long-time space flights on some biochemical and physical-chemical parameters of cosmonauts’ blood. Aviakosm Ekolog Med 30:4–10

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grigoriev AI, Egorov AD (1992) Physiological aspects of adaptation of main human body systems during and after spaceflights. Adv Space Biol Med 2:43–82

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Henriksen EJ, Tischler ME (1988) Glucose uptake in rat soleus: effect of acute unloading and subsequent reloading. J Appl Physiol 64:1428–1432

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Humayun MA, Elango R, Ball RO, Pencharz PB (2007) Reevaluation of the protein requirement in young men with the indicator amino acid oxidation technique. Am J Clin Nutr 86:995–1002

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keyak JH, Koyama AK, LeBlanc A, Lu Y, Lang TF (2009) Reduction in proximal femoral strength due to long-duration spaceflight. Bone 44:449–453

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kozlovskaya IB, Barmin VA, Stepantsov VI, Kharitonov NM (1990) Results of studies of motor functions in long-term space flights. Physiologist 33:S1–S3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lane HW (1992) Energy requirements for space flight. J Nutr 122:13–18

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lane HW, Rambaut PC (1994) Nutrition. In: Nicogossian AE, Huntoon C, Pool SL (eds) Space physiology and medicine, chap 15. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, pp 305–316

  • Lane HW, Kloeris V, Perchonok M, Szwart S, Smith SM (2007) Food and nutrition for the moon base. Nutr Today 42:102–110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lang T, LeBlanc A, Evans H, Lu Y, Genant H, Yu A (2004) Cortical and trabecular bone mineral loss from the spine and hip in long-duration spaceflight. J Bone Miner Res 19:1006–1012

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Langfort J, Zernicka E, Mayet-Sornay MH, Dubaniewicz A, Desplanches D (1997) Effects of acute and chronic hindlimb suspension on sensitivity and responsiveness to insulin in the rat soleus muscle. Biochem Cell Biol 75:41–44

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leach CS, Rambaut PC (1977) Biomedical responses of the Skylab crewmen: an overview. In: Dietlein LF (ed) Biomedical results from Skylab (NASA SP-377). US Govt Printing Office, Washington, pp 204–217

    Google Scholar 

  • LeBlanc A, Rowe R, Schneider V, Evans H, Hedrick T (1995) Regional muscle loss after short duration spaceflight. Aviat Space Environ Med 66:1151–1154

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • LeBlanc AD, Schneider VS, Shakelford L, West V, Oganov A, Bakulin L, Voronin L (1996) Bone mineral and lean tissue loss after long duration space flight. J Bone Miner Res 11:S323

    Google Scholar 

  • LeBlanc AD, Spector ER, Evans HJ, Sibonga JD (2007) Skeletal responses to space flight and the bed rest analog: a review. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact 7:33–47

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leonard JI, Leach CS, Rambaut PC (1983) Quantitation of tissue loss during prolonged space flight. Am J Clin Nutr 38:667–679

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Loehr JA, Lee SM, English KL, Sibonga J, Smith SM, Spiering BA, Hagan RD (2011) Musculoskeletal adaptations to training with the advanced resistive exercise device. Med Sci Sports Exerc 43:146–156

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manek NJ, MacGregor AJ (2005) Epidemiology of back disorders: prevalence, risk factors, and prognosis. epidemiology of back disorders: prevalence, risk factors, and prognosis. Curr Opin Rheumatol 17:134–140

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matsumoto AK, Storch KJ, Stolfi A, Mohler S, Frey MA, Stein TP (2011) Weight loss in humans in space. Aviat Space Environ Med 82:615–621

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nicogossian AE (1994) Microgravity simulations and analogues. In: Nicogossian AE, Huntoon CL, Pool SL (eds) Space physiology and medicine, Chap 20. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, pp 363–371

    Google Scholar 

  • Payne MW, Williams DR, Trudel G (2007) Space flight rehabilitation. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 86:583–591

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riley DA, Thompson JL, Prippendorf B, Slocum GR (1995) Review of spaceflight and hindlimb suspension unloading induced sarcomere damage and repair. Bas Appl Myol 5:139–145

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roelants M, Verschueren SM, Delecluse C, Levin O, Stijnen V (2006) Whole-body-vibration-induced increase in leg muscle activity during different squat exercises. J Strength Cond Res 20:124–129

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheuring RA, Mathers CH, Jones JA, Wear ML (2009) Musculoskeletal injuries and minor trauma in space: incidence and injury mechanisms in U.S. astronauts. Aviat Space Environ Med 80:117–124

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shackelford LC, LeBlanc AD, Driscoll TB, Evans HJ, Rianon NJ, Smith SM, Spector E, Feeback DL, Lai D (2004) Resistance exercise as a countermeasure to disuse-induced bone loss. J Appl Physiol 97:119–129

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sibonga JD, Evans HJ, Sung HG, Spector ER, Lang TF, Oganov VS, Bakulin AV, Shackelford LC, LeBlanc AD (2007) Recovery of spaceflight-induced bone loss: bone mineral density after long-duration missions as fitted with an exponential function. Bone 41:973–978

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith SM, Davis-Street JE, Fesperman JV, Smith MD, Rice BL, Zwart SR (2004) Nutritional status changes in humans during a 14-day saturation dive: the NASA extreme environment mission operations V project. J Nutr 134:1765–1771

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith SM, Zwart SR, Block G, Rice BL, Davis-Street JE (2005) The nutritional status of astronauts is altered after long-term space flight aboard the International Space Station. J Nutr 135:437–443

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith SM, Heer M, Wang Z, Huntoon CL, Zwart SR (2012) Long-duration space flight and bed rest effects on testosterone and other steroids. J Clin Endo Metab 97:270–278

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stauber WT, Clarkson PM, Fritz VK, Evans WJ (1990) Extracellular matrix disruption and pain after eccentric muscle action. J Appl Physiol 69:868–874

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stein TP (2000) The relationship between dietary intake, exercise, energy balance and the space craft environment. Pflugers Arch 441:R21–R31

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stein TP (2001) Nutrition in the space station era. Nutr Res Rev 14:87–114

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stein TP, Leskiw MJ, Schluter MD (1996) Diet and nitrogen metabolism during spaceflight on the shuttle. J Appl Physiol 81:82–97

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stein TP, Leskiw MJ, Schluter MD, Donaldson MR, Larina I (1999a) Protein kinetics during and after long term space flight on MIR. Am J Physiol (Endo and Metab) 276:E1014–E1021

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stein TP, Leskiw MJ, Schluter MD, Hoyt RW, Lane HW, Gretebeck RE, LeBlanc AD (1999b) Energy expenditure and balance during space flight on the shuttle: The LMS mission. Am J Physiol (Endo and Metab) 276:R1739–R1748

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Suzuki Y, Kashihara H, Takenaka K, Kawakubo K, Makita Y, Goto S, Ikawa S, Gunji A (1994) Effects of daily mild supine exercise on physical performance after 20 days bed rest in young persons. Acta Astronaut 33:101–111

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thornton W, Rummel J (1977) Muscular deconditioning and its prevention in space flight (NASA SP-377). Biomedical results from Skylab. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, pp 191–197

    Google Scholar 

  • Trappe S, Creer A, Slivka D, Minchev K, Trappe T (2007) Single muscle fiber function with concurrent exercise or nutrition countermeasures during 60 days of bed rest in women. J Appl Physiol 103:1242–1250

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Trappe S, Costill D, Gallagher P, Creer A, Peters JR, Evans H, Riley DA, Fitts RH (2009) Exercise in space: human skeletal muscle after 6 months aboard the International Space Station. J Appl Physiol 106:1159–1168

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vorobyov EI, Gazenko OG, Genin AM, Egorov AD (1981) Medical results of Salyut-6 manned space flights. Biol Aviakosm Med 15:18–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Westerterp KR (2010) Physical activity, food intake, and body weight regulation: insights from doubly labeled water studies. Nutr Rev 68:148–154

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whedon G, Lutwak L, Rambaut P, Whittle M, Smith M, Read J, Leach C, Staedler CR, Sanford DD (1977) Mineral and nitrogen metabolic studies, Experiment M071. In: Johnson RS, Dietlein LF (eds) Biomedical results from Skylab (NASA SP-377), Section 3. NASA, Washington, pp 164–174

  • Wing PC, Tsang IK, Susak L, Gagnon F, Gagnon R, Potts JE (1991) Back pain and spinal changes in microgravity. Orthop Clin N Am 22:255–262

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zange J, Mester J, Heer M, Kluge G, Liphardt AM (2009) 20-Hz whole body vibration training fails to counteract the decrease in leg muscle volume caused by 14 days of 6 degrees head down tilt bed rest. Eur J Appl Physiol 105:271–277

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zwart SR, Oliver SA, Fesperman JV, Kala G, Krauhs J, Ericson K, Smith SM (2009) Nutritional status assessment before, during, and after long-duration head-down bed rest. Aviat Space Environ Med 80:A15–A22

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Surgery, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, SOM, 2 Medical Center Drive, Stratford, NJ, 08084, USA

    T. P. Stein

Authors
  1. T. P. Stein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to T. P. Stein.

Additional information

Communicated by Nigel A.S. Taylor.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Stein, T.P. Weight, muscle and bone loss during space flight: another perspective. Eur J Appl Physiol 113, 2171–2181 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-012-2548-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-012-2548-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation