Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Nontuberculous Mycobacteria and the Lung: From Suspicion to Treatment

  • Published:
Lung Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) are resilient bacteria that grow in virtually any environment, especially those where competing microorganisms are destroyed, such as in chlorinated water. They have been discovered in soil, dust, food, water, and domestic and wild animals. Nontuberculous mycobacteria tend to infect individuals with local (e.g., damaged skin or lung) or systemic (e.g., HIV, drugs, malignancy) defects in host defence, and their incidence and prevalence have consistently increased in the last decade. Difficulty may arise in determining whether an isolated NTM from a microbiological sample is in fact a contaminant or a pathogenic organism. In this review, we discuss the important mycobacteria involved in lung disease, factors that predispose individuals to infection, and their diagnosis and treatment according to updated guidelines. English language publications in MEDLINE and references from relevant articles from January 1, 1990 to June 28, 2009 were reviewed. Keywords searched were “nontuberculous,” “mycobacteria,” “diagnosis,” and “treatment.”

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Abbreviations

AFB:

Acid fast bacilli

AIDS:

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

ATS:

American Thoracic Society

BAL:

Bronchoalveolar lavage

CD:

Cluster of differentiation

CF:

Cystic fibrosis

CFA:

Cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis

CFTR:

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator

COPD:

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

CT:

Computed tomography

DNA:

Deoxyribonucleic acid

GORD:

Gastroesophageal reflux disease

HAART:

Highly active antiretroviral treatment

HIV:

Human immunodeficiency virus

HLA:

Human leukocyte antigen

HPLC:

High-performance liquid chromatography

HRCT:

High-resolution computed tomography

IDSA:

Infectious Diseases Society of America

IFN:

Interferon

IL:

Interleukin

IRIS:

Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome

MAC:

Mycobacterium avium complex

NFκB:

Nuclear factor κB

NRAMP:

Natural resistance-associated macrophage protein

NTM:

Nontuberculous mycobacteria

RGM:

Rapidly growing mycobacteria

RNA:

Ribonucleic acid

TDS:

Three times daily

TLR:

Toll-like receptor

TNF:

Tumor necrosis factor

References

  1. Piersimoni C, Scarparo C (2004) Pulmonary infections associated with non-tuberculous mycobacteria in immunocompetent patients. Lancet Infect Dis 8(5):323–334

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Herdman AV, Steele JC Jr (2004) The new mycobacterial species—emerging or newly distinguished pathogens. Clin Lab Med 24(3):651–690, vi

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Griffith DE, Aksamit T, Brown-Elliott BA, Catanzaro A, Daley C, Gordin F, Holland SM, Horsburgh R, Huitt G, Iademarco MF, Iseman M, Olivier K, Ruoss S, von Reyn CF, Wallace RJ Jr, Winthrop K, ATS Mycobacterial Diseases Subcommittee, American Thoracic Society, Infectious Disease Society of America (2007) An official ATS/IDSA statement: diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of nontuberculous mycobacterial diseases. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 175(4):367–416

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Crow HE, King CT, Smith CE, Corpe RF, Stergus I (1957) A limited clinical, pathologic, and epidemiologic study of patients with pulmonary lesions associated with atypical acid-fast bacilli in the sputum. Am Rev Tuberc 75(2):199–222

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. McGrath EE, Anderson PB (2007) Increased prevalence of non-tuberculous mycobacteria infection. Lancet 370(9581):28

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Field SK, Cowie RL (2006) Lung disease due to the more common nontuberculous mycobacteria. Chest 129(6):1653–1672

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Gubler JG, Salfinger M, von Graevenitz A (1992) Pseudoepidemic of nontuberculous mycobacteria due to a contaminated bronchoscope cleaning machine. Report of an outbreak and review of the literature. Chest 101(5):1245–1249

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Runyon EH (1959) Anonymous mycobacteria in pulmonary disease. Med Clin North Am 43(1):273–290

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Tortoli E (2003) Impact of genotypic studies on mycobacterial taxonomy: the new mycobacteria of the 1990 s. Clin Microbiol Rev 16(2):319–354

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Tortoli E (2006) The new mycobacteria: an update. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 48(2):159–178

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Inderlied CB, Kemper CA, Bermudez LE (1993) The Mycobacterium avium complex. Clin Microbiol Rev 6(3):266–310

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Falkinham JO III (1996) Epidemiology of infection by nontuberculous mycobacteria. Clin Microbiol Rev 9(2):177–215

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Sugita Y, Ishii N, Katsuno M, Yamada R, Nakajima H (2000) Familial cluster of cutaneous Mycobacterium avium infection resulting from use of a circulating, constantly heated bath water system. Br J Dermatol 142(4):789–793

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Thomsen VO, Andersen AB, Miorner H (2002) Incidence and clinical significance of non-tuberculous mycobacteria isolated from clinical specimens during a 2-y nationwide survey. Scand J Infect Dis 34(9):648–653

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Haverkort F (2003) National atypical mycobacteria survey, 2000. Commun Dis Intell 27(2):180–189

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Martin-Casabona N, Bahrmand AR, Bennedsen J, Thomsen VO, Curcio M, Fauville-Dufaux M, Feldman K, Havelkova M, Katila ML, Köksalan K, Pereira MF, Rodrigues F, Pfyffer GE, Portaels F, Urgell JR, Rüsch-Gerdes S, Tortoli E, Vincent V, Watt B, Spanish Group for Non-Tuberculosis Mycobacteria (2004) Non-tuberculous mycobacteria: patterns of isolation. A multi-country retrospective survey. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 8(10):1186–1193

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Crump JA, van Ingen J, Morrissey AB, Boeree MJ, Mavura DR, Swai B, Thielman NM, Bartlett JA, Grossman H, Maro VP, van Soolingen D (2009) Invasive disease caused by nontuberculous mycobacteria, Tanzania. Emerg Infect Dis 15(1):53–55

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Obayashi Y, Fujita J, Suemitsu I, Kamei T, Nii M, Takahara J (1998) Clinical features of non-tuberculous mycobacterial disease: comparisons between smear-positive and smear-negative cases, and between Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium intracellulare. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2(7):597–602

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Reich JM, Johnson RE (1992) Mycobacterium avium complex pulmonary disease presenting as an isolated lingular or middle lobe pattern. The Lady Windermere syndrome. Chest 101(6):1605–1609

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Embil J, Warren P, Yakrus M, Stark R, Corne S, Forrest D, Hershfield E (1997) Pulmonary illness associated with exposure to Mycobacterium-avium complex in hot tub water. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis or infection? Chest 111(3):813–816

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Kahana LM, Kay JM, Yakrus MA, Waserman S (1997) Mycobacterium avium complex infection in an immunocompetent young adult related to hot tub exposure. Chest 111(1):242–245

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Cappelluti E, Fraire AE, Schaefer OP (2001) A case of “hot tub lung” due to Mycobacterium avium complex in an immunocompetent host. Arch Intern Med 163(7):845–848

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Tanaka D, Niwatsukino H, Oyama T, Nakajo M (2001) Progressing features of atypical mycobacterial infection in the lung on conventional and high resolution CT (HRCT) images. Radiat Med 19(5):237–245

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Mdluli K, Swanson J, Fischer E, Lee RE, Barry CE III (1998) Mechanisms involved in the intrinsic isoniazid resistance of Mycobacterium avium. Mol Microbiol 27(6):1223–1233

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Bittner MJ, Horowitz EA, Safranek TJ, Preheim LC (1996) Emergence of Mycobacterium kansasii as the leading mycobacterial pathogen isolated over a 20-year period at a midwestern Veterans Affairs hospital. Clin Infect Dis 22(6):1109–1110

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Churchyard GJ, Kleinschmidt I, Corbett EL, Mulder D, De Cock KM (1999) Mycobacterial disease in South African gold miners in the era of HIV infection. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 3(9):791–798

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Corbett EL, Blumberg L, Churchyard GJ, Moloi N, Mallory K, Clayton T, Williams BG, Chaisson RE, Hayes RJ, De Cock KM (1999) Nontuberculous mycobacteria: defining disease in a prospective cohort of South African miners. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 160(1):15–21

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Corbett EL, Churchyard GJ, Hay M, Herselman P, Clayton T, Williams B, Hayes R, Mulder D, De Cock KM (1999) The impact of HIV infection on Mycobacterium kansasii disease in South African gold miners. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 160(1):10–14

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Corbett EL, Churchyard GJ, Clayton T, Herselman P, Williams B, Hayes R, Mulder D, De Cock KM (1999) Risk factors for pulmonary mycobacterial disease in South African gold miners. A case-control study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 159(1):94–99

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Corbett EL, Hay M, Churchyard GJ, Herselman P, Clayton T, Williams BG, Hayes R, Mulder D, De Cock KM (1999) Mycobacterium kansasii and M. scrofulaceum isolates from HIV-negative South African gold miners: incidence, clinical significance and radiology. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 3(6):501–507

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Taillard C, Greub G, Weber R, Pfyffer GE, Bodmer T, Zimmerli S, Frei R, Bassetti S, Rohner P, Piffaretti JC, Bernasconi E, Bille J, Telenti A, Prod’hom G (2003) Clinical implications of Mycobacterium kansasii species heterogeneity: Swiss National Survey. J Clin Microbiol 41(3):1240–1244

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Ahn CH, Lowell JR, Onstad GD, Shuford EH, Hurst GA (1979) A demographic study of disease due to Mycobacterium kansasii or M. intracellulare-avium in Texas. Chest 75(2):120–125

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Smith MB, Molina CP, Schnadig VJ, Boyars MC, Aronson JF (2003) Pathologic features of Mycobacterium kansasii infection in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Pathol Lab Med 127(5):554–560

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Doucette K, Fishman JA (2004) Nontuberculous mycobacterial infection in hematopoietic stem cell and solid organ transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 38(10):1428–1439

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Francis PB, Jay SJ, Johanson WG Jr (1975) The course of untreated Mycobacterium kansasii disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 111(4):477–487

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Christensen EE, Dietz GW, Ahn CH, Chapman JS, Murry RC, Hurst GA (1979) Pulmonary manifestations of Mycobacterium intracellularis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 133(1):59–66

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Lillo M, Orengo S, Cernoch P, Harris RL (1990) Pulmonary and disseminated infection due to Mycobacterium kansasii: a decade of experience. Rev Infect Dis 12(5):760–767

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Buchholz UT, McNeil MM, Keyes LE, Good RC (1998) Mycobacterium malmoense infections in the United States, January 1993 through June 1995. Clin Infect Dis 27(3):551–558

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Research Committee of the British Thoracic Society (2001) First randomised trial of treatments for pulmonary disease caused by M. avium intracellulare, M. malmoense, and M. xenopi in HIV negative patients: rifampicin, ethambutol and isoniazid versus rifampicin and ethambutol. Thorax 56(3):167–172

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. [No authors listed] (2003) Pulmonary disease caused by M. malmoense in HIV negative patients: 5-yr follow-up of patients receiving standardised treatment. Eur Respir J 21(3):478-482

    Google Scholar 

  41. Fakih M, Chapalamadugu S, Ricart A, Corriere N, Amsterdam D (1996) Mycobacterium malmoense bacteremia in two AIDS patients. J Clin Microbiol 34(3):731–733

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Evans AJ, Crisp AJ, Colville A, Evans SA, Johnston ID (1993) Pulmonary infections caused by Mycobacterium malmoense and Mycobacterium tuberculosis: comparison of radiographic features. AJR Am J Roentgenol 161(4):733–737

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Hoefsloot W, van Ingen J, de Lange WC, Dekhuijzen PN, Boeree MJ, van Soolingen D (2009) Clinical relevance of Mycobacterium malmoense isolation in The Netherlands. Eur Respir J 34(4):926–931

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Wallace RJ Jr, Brown BA, Griffith DE (1998) Nosocomial outbreaks/pseudo-outbreaks caused by nontuberculous mycobacteria. Annu Rev Microbiol 52:453–490

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Simor AE, Salit IE, Vellend H (1984) The role of Mycobacterium xenopi in human disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 129(3):435–438

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Jenkins PA, Campbell IA (2003) Pulmonary disease caused by Mycobacterium xenopi in HIV-negative patients: five year follow-up of patients receiving standardised treatment. Respir Med 97(4):439–444

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Marusić A, Katalinić-Janković V, Popović-Grle S, Janković M, Mazuranić I, Puljić I, Sertić Milić H (2009) Mycobacterium xenopi pulmonary disease—epidemiology and clinical features in non-immunocompromised patients. J Infect 58(2):108–112

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Marks J, Jenkins PA, Tsukamura M (1972) Mycobacterium szulgai—a new pathogen. Tubercle 53(3):210–214

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. van Ingen J, Boeree MJ, de Lange WC, de Haas PE, Dekhuijzen PN, van Soolingen D (2008) Clinical relevance of Mycobacterium szulgai in The Netherlands. Clin Infect Dis 46(8):1200–1205

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Tortoli E, Besozzi G, Lacchini C, Penati V, Simonetti MT, Emler S (1998) Pulmonary infection due to Mycobacterium szulgai, case report and review of the literature. Eur Respir J 11(4):975–977

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Wolinsky E (1995) Mycobacterial lymphadenitis in children: a prospective study of 105 nontuberculous cases with long-term follow-up. Clin Infect Dis 20(4):954–963

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Emori M, Kajiki A, Ikedo Y, Ochiai S, Iwata Y, Harada Y, Kitahara Y (2007) 15 cases of pulmonary Mycobacterium scrofulaceum infection. Kekkaku 82(3):173–178

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Hawkins JE (1977) Scotochromogenic mycobacteria which appear intermediate between Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare and Mycobacterium scrofulaceum. Am Rev Respir Dis 116(5):963–964

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Rynkiewicz DL, Cage GD, Butler WR, Ampel NM (1998) Clinical and microbiological assessment of Mycobacterium simiae isolates from a single laboratory in southern Arizona. Clin Infect Dis 26(3):625–630

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Weiszfeiler JG, Karasseva V, Karczag E (1981) Mycobacterium simiae and related mycobacteria. Rev Infect Dis 3(5):1040–1045

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Levy-Frebault V, Pangon B, Buré A, Katlama C, Marche C, David HL (1987) Mycobacterium simiae and Mycobacterium avium-M. intracellulare mixed infection in acquired immune deficiency syndrome. J Clin Microbiol 25(1):154–157

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Peters M, Schürmann D, Mayr AC, Heterzer R, Pohle HD, Ruf B (1989) Immunosuppression and mycobacteria other than Mycobacterium tuberculosis: results from patients with and without HIV infection. Epidemiol Infect 103(2):293–300

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Sriyabhaya N, Wongwatana S (1981) Pulmonary infection caused by atypical mycobacteria: a report of 24 cases in Thailand. Rev Infect Dis 3(5):1085–1089

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. El Sahly HM, Septimus E, Soini H, Septimus J, Wallace RJ, Pan X, Williams-Bouyer N, Musser JM, Graviss EA (2002) Mycobacterium simiae pseudo-outbreak resulting from a contaminated hospital water supply in Houston, Texas. Clin Infect Dis 35(7):802–807

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Conger NG, O’Connell RJ, Laurel VL, Olivier KN, Graviss EA, Williams-Bouyer N, Zhang Y, Brown-Elliott BA, Wallace RJ Jr (2004) Mycobacterium simae outbreak associated with a hospital water supply. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 25(12):1050–1055

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Porteous NB, Redding SW, Jorgensen JH (2004) Isolation of non-tuberculosis mycobacteria in treated dental unit waterlines. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 98(1):40–44

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Maoz C, Shitrit D, Samra Z, Peled N, Kaufman L, Kramer MR, Bishara J (2008) Pulmonary Mycobacterium simiae infection: comparison with pulmonary tuberculosis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 27(10):945–950

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. McGrath EE, Qureshi N (2007) Mycobacterium chelonei: friend or foe? Eur Respir J 30(2):397

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. De Groote MA, Huitt G (2006) Infections due to rapidly growing mycobacteria. Clin Infect Dis 42(12):1756–1763

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Griffith DE, Girard WM, Wallace RJ Jr (1993) Clinical features of pulmonary disease caused by rapidly growing mycobacteria. An analysis of 154 patients. Am Rev Respir Dis 147(5):1271–1278

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Han XY, De I, Jacobson KL (2007) Rapidly growing mycobacteria: clinical and microbiologic studies of 115 cases. Am J Clin Pathol 128(4):612–621

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Phowthongkum P, Prasanthai V, Udomsantisook N, Suankratay C (2005) Rapidly growing mycobacteria in King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital and review of the literature in Thailand. J Med Assoc Thai 88(8):1153–1162

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Daley CL, Griffith DE (2002) Pulmonary disease caused by rapidly growing mycobacteria. Clin Chest Med 23(3):623–632, vii

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Hadjiliadis D, Adlakha A, Prakash UB (1999) Rapidly growing mycobacterial lung infection in association with esophageal disorders. Mayo Clin Proc 74(1):45–51

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Olivier KN, Weber DJ, Wallace RJ Jr, Faiz AR, Lee JH, Zhang Y, Brown-Elliot BA, Handler A, Wilson RW, Schechter MS, Edwards LJ, Chakraborti S, Knowles MR, Nontuberculous Mycobacteria in Cystic Fibrosis Study Group (2003) Nontuberculous mycobacteria. I: multicenter prevalence study in cystic fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 167(6):828–834

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Pomerantz M, Weber DJ, Wallace RJ Jr, Faiz AR, Lee JH, Zhang Y, Brown-Elliot BA, Handler A, Wilson RW, Schechter MS, Edwards LJ, Chakraborti S, Knowles MR, Nontuberculous Mycobacteria in Cystic Fibrosis Study Group (1991) Surgical management of resistant mycobacterial tuberculosis and other mycobacterial pulmonary infections. Ann Thorac Surg 52(5):1108–1111 discussion 1112

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Shiraishi Y, Nakajima Y, Katsuragi N, Kurai M, Takahashi N (2004) Pneumonectomy for nontuberculous mycobacterial infections. Ann Thorac Surg 78(2):399–403

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Jacobson K, Garcia R, Libshitz H, Whimbey E, Rolston K, Abi-Said D, Raad I (1998) Clinical and radiological features of pulmonary disease caused by rapidly growing mycobacteria in cancer patients. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 17(9):615–621

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Nash KA, Zhang Y, Brown-Elliott BA, Wallace RJ Jr (2005) Molecular basis of intrinsic macrolide resistance in clinical isolates of Mycobacterium fortuitum. J Antimicrob Chemother 55(2):170–177

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Nash KA, Brown-Elliott BA, Wallace RJ Jr (2009) A novel gene, erm(41), confers inducible macrolide resistance to clinical isolates of Mycobacterium abscessus but is absent from Mycobacterium chelonae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53(4):1367–1376

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Nomura K, Ogawa M, Miyamoto H, Muratani T, Taniguchi H (2004) Antibiotic susceptibility of glutaraldehyde-tolerant Mycobacterium chelonae from bronchoscope washing machines. Am J Infect Control 32(4):185–188

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Hsieh HC, Lu PL, Chen TC, Chang K, Chen YH (2008) Mycobacterium chelonae empyema in an immunocompetent patient. J Med Microbiol 57(Pt 5):664–667

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Hazelton TR, Newell JD Jr, Cook JL, Huitt GA, Lynch DA (2000) CT findings in 14 patients with Mycobacterium chelonae pulmonary infection. AJR Am J Roentgenol 175(2):413–416

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Wallace RJ Jr, Brown BA, Onyi GO (1992) Skin, soft tissue, and bone infections due to Mycobacterium chelonae chelonae: importance of prior corticosteroid therapy, frequency of disseminated infections, and resistance to oral antimicrobials other than clarithromycin. J Infect Dis 166(2):405–412

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Brown-Elliott BA, Wallace RJ Jr (2002) Clinical and taxonomic status of pathogenic nonpigmented or late-pigmenting rapidly growing mycobacteria. Clin Microbiol Rev 15(4):716–746

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Fowler SJ, French J, Screaton NJ, Foweraker J, Condliffe A, Haworth CS, Exley AR, Bilton D (2006) Nontuberculous mycobacteria in bronchiectasis: prevalence and patient characteristics. Eur Respir J 28(6):1204–1210

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Wickremasinghe M, Ozerovitch LJ, Davies G, Wodehouse T, Chadwick MV, Abdallah S, Shah P, Wilson R (2005) Non-tuberculous mycobacteria in patients with bronchiectasis. Thorax 60(12):1045–1051

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Esther CR Jr, Henry MM, Molina PL, Leigh MW (2005) Nontuberculous mycobacterial infection in young children with cystic fibrosis. Pediatr Pulmonol 40(1):39–44

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Pierre-Audigier C, Ferroni A, Sermet-Gaudelus I, Le Bourgeois M, Offredo C, Vu-Thien H, Fauroux B, Mariani P, Munck A, Bingen E, Guillemot D, Quesne G, Vincent V, Berche P, Gaillard JL (2005) Age-related prevalence and distribution of nontuberculous mycobacterial species among patients with cystic fibrosis. J Clin Microbiol 43(7):3467–3470

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Mussaffi H, Rivlin J, Shalit I, Ephros M, Blau H (2005) Nontuberculous mycobacteria in cystic fibrosis associated with allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis and steroid therapy. Eur Respir J 25(2):324–328

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Iseman MD, Buschman DL, Ackerson LM (1991) Pectus excavatum and scoliosis. Thoracic anomalies associated with pulmonary disease caused by Mycobacterium avium complex. Am Rev Respir Dis 144(4):914–916

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Henry MT, Rivlin J, Shalit I, Ephros M, Blau H (2004) Nontuberculous mycobacteria in non-HIV patients: epidemiology, treatment and response. Eur Respir J 23(5):741–746

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. McGrath EE, Bardsley P (2009) An association between Mycobacterium malmoense and coal workers’ pneumoconiosis. Lung 187(1):51–54

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Thomson RM, Armstrong JG, Looke DF (2007) Gastroesophageal reflux disease, acid suppression, and Mycobacterium avium complex pulmonary disease. Chest 131(4):1166–1172

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Koh WJ, Lee JH, Kwon YS, Lee KS, Suh GY, Chung MP, Kim H, Kwon OJ (2007) Prevalence of gastroesophageal reflux disease in patients with nontuberculous mycobacterial lung disease. Chest 131(6):1825–1830

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Horsburgh CR Jr (1991) Mycobacterium avium complex infection in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med 324(19):1332–1338

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Jones D, Havlir DV (2002) Nontuberculous mycobacteria in the HIV infected patient. Clin Chest Med 23(3):665–674

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Hocqueloux L, Lesprit P, Herrmann JL, de La Blanchardiere A, Zagdanski AM, Decazes JM, Modai J (1998) Pulmonary Mycobacterium avium complex disease without dissemination in HIV-infected patients. Chest 113(2):542–548

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Marras TK, Morris A, Gonzalez LC, Daley CL (2004) Mortality prediction in pulmonary Mycobacterium kansasii infection and human immunodeficiency virus. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 170(7):793–798

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Marras TK, Daley CK (2004) A systematic review of the clinical significance of pulmonary Mycobacterium kansasii isolates in HIV infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 36(4):883–889

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Shelburne SA III, Hamill RJ (2003) The immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. AIDS Rev 5(2):67–79

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Lawn SD, Bekker LG, Miller RF (2005) Immune reconstitution disease associated with mycobacterial infections in HIV-infected individuals receiving antiretrovirals. Lancet Infect Dis 5(6):361–373

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Phillips P, Bonner S, Gataric N, Bai T, Wilcox P, Hogg R, O’Shaughnessy M, Montaner J (2005) Nontuberculous mycobacterial immune reconstitution syndrome in HIV-infected patients: spectrum of disease and long-term follow-up. Clin Infect Dis 41(10):1483–1497

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Shelburne SA III, Hamill RJ, Rodriguez-Barradas MC, Greenberg SB, Atmar RL, Musher DW, Gathe JC Jr, Visnegarwala F, Trautner BW (2002) Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome: emergence of a unique syndrome during highly active antiretroviral therapy. Medicine (Baltimore) 81(3):213–227

    Article  Google Scholar 

  100. Malouf MA, Glanville AR (1999) The spectrum of mycobacterial infection after lung transplantation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 160(5 Pt 1):1611–1616

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Queipo JA, Broseta E, Santos M, Sánchez-Plumed J, Budía A, Jiménez-Cruz F (2003) Mycobacterial infection in a series of 1261 renal transplant recipients. Clin Microbiol Infect 9(6):518–525

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Sexton P, Harrison AC (2008) Susceptibility to nontuberculous mycobacterial lung disease. Eur Respir J 31(6):1322–1333

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Jacobson KL, Teira R, Libshitz HI, Raad I, Rolston KV, Terrand J, Whimbey E (2000) Mycobacterium kansasii infections in patients with cancer. Clin Infect Dis 30(6):965–969

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Thaker H, Neilly IJ, Saunders PG, Magee JG, Snow MH, Ong EL (2001) Remember mycobacterial disease in hairy cell leukaemia (HCL). J Infect 42(3):213–214

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Finucane K, Ambrey P, Narayan S, Archer CB, Dayan C (2003) Insulin injection abscesses caused by Mycobacterium chelonae. Diabetes Care 26(8):2483–2484

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Jackson PG, Keen H, Noble CJ, Simmons NA (1980) Injection abscesses in a diabetic due to Mycobacterium chelonei var abscessus. Br Med J 281(6248):1105–1106

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Kelly SE (1987) Multiple injection abscesses in a diabetic caused by Mycobacterium chelonei. Clin Exp Dermatol 12(1):48–49

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Schadlow M, Laochumroonvorapong P, Burack L, Wu H, Sinha AA (2003) Nodules on the arm of a diabetic patient. Arch Dermatol 139(1):93–98

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Nagaia T, Akiyama M, Mita Y, Tomizawa T, Dobashi K, Mori M (2000) Mycobacterium avium complex pleuritis accompanied by diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 48(2):99–104

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Arend SM, Cerdá de Palou E, de Haas P, Janssen R, Hoeve MA, Verhard EM, Ottenhoff TH, van Soolingen D, van Dissel JT (2004) Pneumonia caused by Mycobacterium kansasii in a series of patients without recognised immune defect. Clin Microbiol Infect 10(8):738–748

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Robillon JF, Sadoul JL, Guerin P, Iafrate-Lacoste C, Talbodec A, Santini J, Canivet B, Freychet P (1994) Mycobacterium avium intracellulare suppurative thyroiditis in a patient with Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. J Endocrinol Invest 17(2):133–134

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Southern PM Jr (2004) Tenosynovitis caused by Mycobacterium kansasii associated with a dog bite. Am J Med Sci 327(5):258–261

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Maimon N, Brunton J, Chan AK, Marras TK (2007) Fatal pulmonary Mycobacterium xenopi in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis receiving etanercept. Thorax 62(8):739–740

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Thomas JE, Taoka CR, Gibbs BT, Fraser SL (2006) Fatal pulmonary Mycobacterium abscessus infection in a patient using etanercept. Hawaii Med J 65(1):12–15

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. van Ingen J, Boeree M, Janssen M, Ullmann E, de Lange W, de Haas P, Dekhuijzen R, van Soolingen D (2007) Pulmonary Mycobacterium szulgai infection and treatment in a patient receiving anti-tumor necrosis factor therapy. Nat Clin Pract Rheumatol 3(7):414–419

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. van de Vosse E, Hoeve MA, Ottenhoff TH (2004) Human genetics of intracellular infectious diseases: molecular and cellular immunity against mycobacteria and salmonellae. Lancet Infect Dis 4(12):739–749

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Doffinger R, Smahi A, Bessia C, Geissmann F, Feinberg J, Durandy A, Bodemer C, Kenwrick S, Dupuis-Girod S, Blanche S, Wood P, Rabia SH, Headon DJ, Overbeek PA, Le Deist F, Holland SM, Belani K, Kumararatne DS, Fischer A, Shapiro R, Conley ME, Reimund E, Kalhoff H, Abinun M, Munnich A, Israël A, Courtois G, Casanova JL (2001) X-linked anhidrotic ectodermal dysplasia with immunodeficiency is caused by impaired NF-kappaB signaling. Nat Genet 27(3):277–285

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Ohga S, Ikeuchi K, Kadoya R, Okada K, Miyazaki C, Suita S, Ueda K (1997) Intrapulmonary Mycobacterium avium infection as the first manifestation of chronic granulomatous disease. J Infect 34(2):147–150

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Takahashi M, Ishizaka A, Nakamura H, Kobayashi K, Nakamura M, Namiki M, Sekita T, Okajima S (2000) Specific HLA in pulmonary MAC infection in a Japanese population. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 162(1):316–318

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Koh WJ, Kwon OJ, Kim EJ, Lee KS, Ki CS, Kim JW (2005) NRAMP1 gene polymorphism and susceptibility to nontuberculous mycobacterial lung diseases. Chest 128(1):94–101

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Ehrmantraut ME, Hilligoss DM, Chernick M, Steagall WK, Glasgow CG, Anderson VL (2003) Pulmonary nontuberculous mycobacterial infections are highly associated with mutations in CFTR. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 167:A708

    Article  Google Scholar 

  122. Ryu YJ, Kim EJ, Lee SH, Kim SY, Suh GY, Chung MP, Kim H, Kwon OJ, Koh WJ (2007) Impaired expression of Toll-like receptor 2 in nontuberculous mycobacterial lung disease. Eur Respir J 30(4):736–742

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Huang JH, Oefner PJ, Adi V, Ratnam K, Ruoss SJ, Trako E, Kao PN (1998) Analyses of the NRAMP1 and IFN-gammaR1 genes in women with Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 157(2):377–381

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Woods GL (2002) The mycobacteriology laboratory and new diagnostic techniques. Infect Dis Clin North Am 16(1):127–144

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Tenover FC, Crawford JT, Huebner RE, Geiter LJ, Horsburgh CR Jr, Good RC (1993) The resurgence of tuberculosis: is your laboratory ready? J Clin Microbiol 31(4):767–770

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Glassroth J (2008) Pulmonary disease due to nontuberculous mycobacteria. Chest 133(1):243–251

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Wallace RJ Jr, Dunbar D, Brown BA, Onyi G, Dunlap R, Ahn CH, Murphy DT (1994) Rifampin-resistant Mycobacterium kansasii. Clin Infect Dis 18(5):736–743

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Valero G, Peters J, Jorgensen JH, Graybill JR (1995) Clinical isolates of Mycobacterium simiae in San Antonio, Texas. An 11-yr review. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 152(51):1555–1557

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Dailloux M, Abalain ML, Laurain C, Lebrun L, Loos-Ayav C, Lozniewski A, Maugein J, French Mycobacteria Study Group (2006) Respiratory infections associated with nontuberculous mycobacteria in non-HIV patients. Eur Respir J 28(6):1211–1215

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. van Ingen J, Boeree MJ, de Lange WC, Dekhuijzen PN, van Soolingen D (2007) Impact of new American Thoracic Society diagnostic criteria on management of nontuberculous mycobacterial infection. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 176(4):418, author reply 419

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Respiratory Medicine, Northern General Hospital, Sheffield, S5 7AU, UK

    Emmet E. McGrath, Zoe Blades, Josie McCabe, Hannah Jarry & Paul B. Anderson

Authors
  1. Emmet E. McGrath
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Zoe Blades
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Josie McCabe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Hannah Jarry
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Paul B. Anderson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Emmet E. McGrath.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

McGrath, E.E., Blades, Z., McCabe, J. et al. Nontuberculous Mycobacteria and the Lung: From Suspicion to Treatment. Lung 188, 269–282 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00408-010-9240-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00408-010-9240-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation