Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Psychological pathways to depression in schizophrenia

Studies in acute psychosis, post psychotic depression and auditory hallucinations

  • SPECIAL ISSUE
  • Published:
European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience Aims and scope Submit manuscript

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Addington D, Addington J (1990) Depression dexamethasone nonsuppression and negative symptoms in schizophrenia. Can J Psychiatry 35:430–433

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Addington D, Addington J, Maticka-Tyndale E (1993) Assessing depression in schizophrenia: the Calgary depression scale. Br J Psychiatry 22(Suppl):39–44

    Google Scholar 

  3. Addington D, Addington J, Patten S (1998) Depression in people with first-episode schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 33(Suppl):90–92

    Google Scholar 

  4. Allan S, Gilbert P (1995) A social comparison scale: psychometric properties and relationship to psychopathology. Pers Indiv Diffs 19:293–299

    Google Scholar 

  5. Allan S, Gilbert P (1997) Submissive behaviour and psychopathology. Br J Clin Psychol 36:467–488

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Altman H, Collins M, Mundy P (1997) Subclinical hallucinations and delusions in non-psychotic adolescents. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 38:413–420

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. American Psychiatric Association (1994) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th edition). American Psychiatric Association, Washington DC

  8. Andreason NC (1982) Negative symptoms of schizophrenia: Definition and reliability. Arch Gen Psychiatry 39:784–788

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Andreason NC (1986) The Scale for the Assessment of Positive Symptoms (SAPS). University of Iowa, Iowa City

  10. Bandelow B, Müller P, Gaebel W, et al. (1990) Depressive syndromes in schizophrenic patients after discharge from hospital. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 240:113–120

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Bauer S (1970) The function of hallucinations: an enquiry into the relationship of auditory hallucinatory experience to creative thought. In: Keup W (ed) Origins and Mechanisms of Hallucinations. Plenum, New York, pp 51–62

  12. Baynes D, Mulholland C, Cooper SJ, et al. (2000) Depressive symptoms in stable chronic schizophrenia: Prevalence and relationship to psychopathology and treatment. Schiz Res 45:47–56

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Beck AT (1967) Depression: Clinical, experimental and theoretical aspects. Harper and Row, New York

  14. Beck AT, Rush AJ, Shaw BF, Emery G (1979) Cognitive Therapy of Depression. Wiley, New York

  15. Beck AT, Steer RA, Garbin MG (1988) Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty five years of evaluation. Clin Psychol Rev 8:77–100

    Google Scholar 

  16. Beck-Sander A, Birchwood M, Chadwick P (1997) Acting on command hallucinations: a cognitive approach. Br J Clin Psychol 36:139–148

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Benjamin LS (1989) Is chronicity a function of the relationship between the person and the auditory hallucination? Schiz Bull 15:291–310

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Bentler PM, Speckart G (1981) Attitudes “cause” behaviours: a structural equation analysis. J Pers Soc Psychol 40:226–238

    Google Scholar 

  19. Birchwood M (2003) Editorial: Pathways to emotional dysfunction in psychosis. Br J Psychiatry 182:373–375

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Birchwood M, Chadwick P (1997) The omnipotence of voices: Testing the validity of a cognitive model. Psychol Med 27:1345–1353

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Birchwood M, Iqbal Z (1998) Depression and suicidal thinking in psychosis: a cognitive approach. In: Wykes T, Tarrier N, Lewis S (eds) Outcome and innovation in psychological management of schizophrenia. John Wiley and Sons Ltd Chichester, pp 56–76

  22. Birchwood M, Iqbal Z, Chadwick P, et al. (2000) Cognitive approach to depression and suicidal thinking in psychosis I: Ontogeny of post-psychotic depression. Br J Psychiatry 177:516–521

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Birchwood M, Mason R, MacMillan F, et al. (1993) Depression demoralisation and control over psychotic illness: A comparison of depressed and non-depressed patients with a chronic psychosis. Psychol Med 23:387–395

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Birchwood M, Meaden A, Trower P, et al. (2000) The power and omnipotence of voices: subordination and entrapment by voices and significant others. Psychol Med 30:337–344

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Birchwood M, Smith J, Drury V, et al. (1994) A self-report insight scale for psychosis: Reliability, validity and sensitivity to change. Acta Psychiatr Scand 89:62–67

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Birchwood M, Smith J, MacMillan F, et al. (1989) Predicting relapse in schizophrenia: The development of an ‘early signs’ monitoring system using patients and families as observers. Psychol Med 19:649–656

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Birchwood M, Gilbert P, Gilbert J, Trower P, Meaden A, Murray E, Hay J, Miles NV (2005) Interpersonal and role-related schema Influence the relationship with the dominant ‘voice’ in schizophrenia: a comparison of three models. Psychol Med

  28. Birchwood M, Todd P, Jackson C (1998) Early intervention in psychosis: The critical period hypothesis. Br J Psychiatry 172 (Suppl):53–59

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Blatt SJ, D’Afflitti P, Quinlan DM (1976) Experience of depression in normal young adults. J Abnorm Psychol 85:383–389

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Bleuler E (1950) Dementia Praecox or the group of schizophrenias, 1911. English translation: J Zinkin. International Universities Press New York

    Google Scholar 

  31. Bollen KA (1989) Structural Equations with Latent Variables. Wiley-Interscience New York

  32. Bressan RA, Chaves AC, Pilowsky LS, et al. (2002) Depressive episodes in stable schizophrenia: critical evaluation of the DSMIV and ICD-10 diagnostic criteria. Psychiatry Res 117:47–56

    Google Scholar 

  33. Brier A, Schreiber JL, Dyer J, et al. (1991) National Institute of Mental Health longitudinal study of chronic schizophrenia: Prognosis and predictors of outcome. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48:239–246

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Brown GW, Bifulco A, Andrews B (1990) Self-esteem and depression IV: Effect on course and recovery. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 25:244–249

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Brown GW, Harris TO (1978) Social origins of depression: a study of psychiatric disorders in women. Tavistock Publications London

    Google Scholar 

  36. Brown GW, Harris T, Hepworth C (1995) Loss, humiliation and entrapment among women developing depression. Psychol Med 25:7–21

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Browne MW, Cudeck R (1992) Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In: Bollen K, Long JS (eds) Testing Structural Equation Models. Erlbaum Hillsdale NJ, pp 222–230

  38. Byrne S, Trower P, Birchwood M, et al. (2003) Command hallucinations: Cognitive theory and therapy. J Cogn Psychother Int Q 17:67–84

    Google Scholar 

  39. Carter DM, Mackinnon A, Howard S, et al. (1995) The development and reliability of the Mental Health Research Institute Unusual Perceptions Schedule (MUPS): An instrument to record auditory hallucinatory experience. Schiz Res 16:157–165

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Chadwick P, Birchwood M (1994) The omnipotence of voices II: the beliefs about voices questionnaire (BAVQ). Br J Psychiatry 166:773–776

    Google Scholar 

  41. Chadwick P, Birchwood M (1995) The omnipotence of voices. A cognitive approach to auditory hallucinations. Br J Psychiatry 164:190–201

    Google Scholar 

  42. Chadwick P, Birchwood M, Trower P (1996) Cognitive therapy for delusions, voices and paranoia. John Wiley and Sons Chichester

  43. Chadwick P, Sambrooke S, Rasch S (2000) Challenging the omnipotence of voices: group cognitive behaviour therapy for voices. Behav Res Ther 38:993–1003

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Clark DM, Fairburn C (1996) The Science and Practice of Cognitive Behaviour Therapy. Oxford University Press

  45. Close H, Garety P (1998) Cognitive assessment of voices: Further developments in understanding the emotional impact of voices. Br J Clin Psychol 37:173–189

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Crown S, Lucas CJ, Stringer P, et al. (1977) Personality correlates of study difficulty and academic performance in university students II: conscience and self-esteem. Br J Med Psychol 50:275–281

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Davidson L, Strauss JS (1992) Sense of self in recovery from severe mental illness. Br J Med Psychol 65:131–145

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Drake T, Cotton T (1986) Suicide among schizophrenics: A comparison of attempted and completed suicides. Br J Psychiatry 149:784–787

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Drury V, Birchwood M, Cochrane R, et al. (1996) Cognitive therapy and recovery from acute psychosis: a controlled trial—I. Impact on psychotic symptoms. Br J Psychiatry 169:593–601

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Drury V, Birchwood M, Cochrane R (2000) Cognitive therapy and recovery from acute psychosis: A controlled trial 3 Five-year follow-up. Br J Psychiatry 177:8–14

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Escher S, Romme M, Buiks A, et al. (2001) Independent course of childhood auditory hallucinations: A sequential 3 year follow up study. Br J Psychiatry 181:S10–S18

    Google Scholar 

  52. Freeman D, Garety PA, Kuipers E (2001) Persecutory delusions: developing the understanding of belief maintenance and emotional distress. Psychol Med 31:1293–1306

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. French J, Ravens BH (1959) The bases of social power. In: Cartwright D (ed) Studies in Social Power. Ann Arbor Institute of Social Research Michigan, pp 161–182

  54. Gilbert P (2000a) Social mentalities: Internal ‘social’ conflicts and the role of inner warmth and compassion in cognitive therapy. In: Gilbert P, Bailey KG (eds) Genes on the Couch: Explorations in Evolutionary Psychotherapy. Brunner-Routledge Hove, pp 211–229

  55. Gilbert P (2000b) Varieties of submissive behaviour: Evolution and role in depression. In: Sloman L, Gilbert P (eds) Subordination and Defeat. An Evolutionary Approach to Mood Disorders. Erlbaum Hillsdale NJ, pp 52–70

  56. Gilbert P (1995) Power, social rank and depression: comments on Price and Gardner. Br J Med Psychol 68:211–215

    Google Scholar 

  57. Gilbert P (1992) Depression: The Evolution of Powerlessness. Erlbaum Hove

  58. Gilbert P (1989) Human Nature and Suffering. Psychology Press Hove

  59. Gilbert P, Allan S (1998) The role of defeat and entrapment (arrested flight) in depression: An exploration of an evolutionary view. Psychol Med 28:584–597

    Google Scholar 

  60. Gilbert P, Birchwood M, Gilbert J, et al. (2001) An exploration of evolved mental mechanisms for dominant and subordinate behaviour in relation to auditory hallucinations in schizophreniaand critical thoughts in depression. Psychol Med 31:1117–1127

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Gilbert P, Clarke M, Kempel S, et al. (2005) Criticising and reassuring oneself: An exploration of forms, style and reasons in female students. Br J Clin Psychol (in press)

    Google Scholar 

  62. Gilbert P, Irons C (2005) Therapies for shame and self-attacking, using cognitive, behavioural, emotional, imagery and compassionate mind training. In: Gilbert P (ed) Compassion: Conceptualisations, Research and Use in Psychotherapy. Brunner-Routledge London, pp 180–190

  63. Gilbert P, McGuire M (1998) Shame, status and social roles: The psychobiological continuum from monkeys to humans. In: Gilbert P, Andrews B (eds) Shame: Interpersonal Behaviour Psychopathology and Culture. Oxford University Press New York, pp 10–22

  64. Guze SB, Cloninger CR, Martin RL, et al. (1983) A follow-up and family study of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 40:1273–1276

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Häfner H, Maurer K, Loffler W, et al. (1998) The ABC Schizophrenia Study: a preliminary overview of the results. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 33(8):380–386

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Harrison G, Hopper K, Craig T, et al. (2001) Recovery from psychotic illness: A 15- and 25-year international follow-up study. Br J Psychiatry 178:506–517

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Harrow M, Yonan CA, Sands JR, et al. (1994) Depression in schizophrenia: Are neuroleptics, akinesia or anhedonia involved? Schiz Bull 20:327–338

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Hollander EP, Offerman LR (1990) Power and leadership in organisations: Relationships in transition. Am Psychol 45:179–189

    Google Scholar 

  69. Higgins ET (1983) A theory of discrepant self-concepts. Unpublished New York University

  70. Hirsch SR, Jolley AG (1989) The dysphoric syndrome in schizophrenia and its implications for relapse. Br J Psychiatry 5 (Suppl):46–50

    Google Scholar 

  71. Hustig H, Hafner R (1990) Persistent auditory hallucinations and their relationship to delusions and mood. J Nervous Mental Disease 178:264–267

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Iqbal Z, Birchwood M, Chadwick P, et al. (2000) A cognitive approach to depression and suicidal thinking in psychosis II: Testing the validity of a social ranking model. Br J Psychiatry 177:522–528

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Jablensky A, Sartorious N, Ernberg G, et al. (1994) Schizophrenia: manifestations, incidence and course in different cultures: A World Health Organisation ten-country study. Psychol Med Monogr Supply 20:1–97

    Google Scholar 

  74. Johnson DAW (1981) Studies of depressive symptoms in schizophrenia: The prevalence of depression and its possible causes. Br J Psychiatry 139:89–101

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Jones PB, Bebbington PE, Foerster A, et al. (1993) Premorbid social underachievement in schizophrenia: Results from the Camberwell collaborative psychosis study. Br J Psychiatry 162:65–71

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Jöreskog KG, Sörbom D (1999) LISREL 8.51 (computer program). Scientific Software Inc., Chicago

  77. Kay SR, Fiszbein A, Opler LA (1987) Positive and Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia (PANSS). Schiz Bull 3:261–276

    Google Scholar 

  78. Koreen AR, Siris SG, Chakos M, et al. (1993) Depression in first-episode schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 150:1643–1648

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Knights A, Okasha MS, Salih MA, et al. (1979) Depressive and extrapyramidal symptoms and clinical effects: a trial of fluphenazine versus flupenthixol in maintenance of schizophrenic out-patients. Br J Psychiatry 135:515–523

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Kulhara P, Avasthi A, Chadda R, et al. (1989) Negative and depressive symptoms in schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 154:207–211

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Lazarus R, Folkman J (1984) Stress, appraisal and coping. Springer New York

  82. Leff J (1990) Depressive symptoms in the course of schizophrenia. In: DeLisi LE (ed) Depression in schizophrenia. American Psychiatric Press Washington DC, pp 105–127

  83. Leff J, Tress A, Edwards B (1988) The clinical course of depressive symptoms in schizophrenia. Schiz Res 1:25–30

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Lindenmayer JP, Grochowski S, Kay SR (1991) Schizophrenic patients with depression: psychopathological profiles and relationship with negative symptoms. Compr Psychiatry 32:528–533

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Marcus H, Nurius P (1986) Possible selves. Am Psychol 41:954–969

    Google Scholar 

  86. Marcus H, Wurf E (1987) The dynamic self-concept: a social psychological perspective. Annu Rev Psychol 38:299–337

    Google Scholar 

  87. Markou P (1996) Depression in schizophrenia: A descriptive study. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 30:354–357

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Mauri MC, Bravin S, Fabiano L, et al. (1995) Depressive symptoms and schizophrenia: A psychopharmacological approach. L’encephale 21:555–558

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. McGlashan TH, Carpenter WT (1976) An investigation of the postpsychotic depressive syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 133:14–19

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. McGorry PD, Bell RC, Dudgeon PL, et al. (1998) The dimensional structure of first episode psychosis: An exploratory factor analysis. Psychol Med 28:935–947

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Möller HJ, von Zersen D (1982) Depressive states occurring during the neuroleptic treatment of schizophrenia. Schiz Bull 8:109–117

    Google Scholar 

  92. Morrison AP (2002) A Casebook of Cognitive Therapy for Psychosis. Brunner-Routledge London

  93. Morrison AP, Haddock G (1997) Cognitive factors in source monitoring and auditory hallucinations. Psychol Med 27:669–679

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Morrison AP, Wells A, Nothard S (2000) Cognitive factors in predisposition to auditory and visual hallucinations. Br J Clin Psychol 39:67–78

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Mortenson PB, Juel K (1993) Mortality and the causes of death in first admitted schizophrenic patients. Br J Psychiatry 163:183–189

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Müller MJ, Wetzel H (1998) Dimensionality of depression in acute schizophrenia: A methodological study using the Bech-Rafaelsen Melancholia Scale (BRMES). J Psychiatr Res 32:369–378

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Munro JG, Hardiker TM, Leonard DP (1984) The dexamethasone suppression test in residual schizophrenia with depression. Am J Psychiatry 141:250–252

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Nayani TH, David A (1996) The auditory hallucination: A phenomenological survey. Psychol Med 26:126–141

    Google Scholar 

  99. Ogilvie DM (1987) The undesired self: a neglected variable in personality research. J Pers Soc Psychol 52:379–385

    Google Scholar 

  100. Paykel E (2003) Life events: effects and genesis. Psychologica, Medicine 33:1134–1148

    Google Scholar 

  101. Peralta V, Cuesta MJ (1999) Dimensional structure of psychotic symptoms: an item-level analysis of SAPS and SANS symptoms in psychotic disorders. Schiz Res 38:13–26

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Pearl J (2000) Causality: Models Reasoning and Inference. Cambridge University Press Cambridge

  103. Rooke O, Birchwood M (1998) Loss, humiliation and entrapment as appraisals of schizophrenic illness: a prospective study of depressed and non-depressed patients. Br J Clin Psychol 37:259–268

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Rosenberg M (1965) Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton University Press Princeton

  105. Roy A (1986) Depression, attempted suicide and suicide in patients with chronic schizophrenia. Psychiatr Clin N Am 9:193–206

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Roy A (1986) Suicide in schizophrenia. In: Roy A (ed) Suicide. Williams and Wilkins Baltimore, pp 36–81

  107. Roy A (1981) Depression in the course of chronic undifferentiated schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 38:296–297

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Roy A (1980) Depression in chronic paranoid schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 137:138–139

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Sands JR, Harrow M (1999) Depression during the longitudinal course of schizophrenia. Schiz Bull 25:157–171

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Sayer J, Ritter S, Gournay K (2000) Beliefs about voices and their effects on coping strategies. J Adv Nurs 31:1199–1205

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Shadish WR, Cook TD, Campbell DT (2001) Experimental and Quasi-experimental Designs for Generalised Causal Inference. New York

  112. Siris SG (1995) Depression and schizophrenia. In: Hirsch SR, Weinberger DR (eds) Schizophrenia. Blackwell Oxford, pp 128–145

  113. Siris SG, Bench C (2003) Depression and schizophrenia. In: Hirch SR, Weinberger DR (eds) Schizophrenia. Blackwell Publishing Ltd Oxford, pp 142–167

  114. Siris SG, Harman GK, Endicott J (1981) Postpsychotic depressive symptoms in hospitalised schizophrenic patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 38:1122–1123

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Stefanis NC, Hanssen M, Smirnis NK (2002) Evidence that three dimensions of psychosis have a distribution in the general population. Psychol Med 32:347–358

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Summers F, Harrow M, Westermeyer J (1983) Neurotic symptoms in the post acute phase of schizophrenia. J Nervous Mental Disease 171:216–221

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Tapp A, Tandon R, Douglass A, et al. (1994) Depression in severe chronic schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 35:667

    Google Scholar 

  118. Trower P, Birchwood M, Byrne S, et al. (2004) Cognitive therapy for command hallucinations: Results of a randomized controlled trial. Br J Psychiatry 184:312–320

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Ullman JB (2000) Structural Equation Modelling. In: Tabachnik BG, Fidell LS (eds) Using Multivariate Statistics. Allyn and Bacon New York, pp 110–128

  120. van der Gaag M, Hageman MC, Birchwood M (2003) Evidence for a cognitive model of auditory hallucinations. J Nervous Mental Disease 191:542–545

    Google Scholar 

  121. van Os J, Gilvarry C, Bale R, et al. (1999) A comparison of the utility of dimensional and categorical representations of psychosis. Psychol Med 29:595–606

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. van Os J, Hanssen M, Bijkl R (2001) The prevalence of psychotic disorder is associated with community level of psychotic symptoms: An urban-rural comparison. Schiz Res 49:43

    Google Scholar 

  123. Van Putten T, May P (1978) “Akinetic depression” in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 35:1101–1107

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Whitehead C, Moss S, Cardno A, Lewis G (2003) Antidepressants for the treatment of depression in people with schizophrenia. Psychol Med 33:589–599

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Verdoux H, Liraud F, Gonzales B, et al. (2001) Predictors and outcome characteristics associated with suicidal behaviour in early psychosis: A two-year follow-up of first-admitted subjects. Acta Psychiatr Scand 103:347–354

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Wassink TH, Flaum M, Nopoulos P, et al. (1999) Prevalence of depressive symptoms early in the course of schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 156:315–316

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Wassink TH, Rose S, Flaum M, et al. (1997) The prevalence and predictive validity of early depressive symptoms in the course of schizophrenia. Schiz Res 24:25

    Google Scholar 

  128. Weissman MM, Pottenger M, Kleber H, et al. (1977) Symptom patterns in primary and secondary depression: a comparison of primary depressives with depressed opiate addicts, alcoholics and schizophrenics. Arch Gen Psychiatry 34:854–862

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Westermeyer JF, Harrow M, Marengo JT (1991) Risk for suicide in schizophrenia and other psychotic and non-psychotic disorders. J Nervous Mental Disease 179:259–266

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Wiersma D, Wanderling J, Dragomirecka E, et al. (2000) Social disability in schizophrenia: Its development and prediction over 15 years in incidence cohorts in six European centres. Eur Psychiatry 15:292S–292S

    Google Scholar 

  131. Williams JMG (1992) The psychological treatment of depression. Routledge London

  132. Wojcik JD, Gelenberg AJ, LaBrie RA, et al. (1980) Prevalence of tardive dyskinesia in an outpatient population. Compr Psychiatry 21:370–380

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. World Health Organization (1998) Schedules for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychology. WHO Division of Mental Health Team Geneva

  134. World Health Organisation (1993) The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders. WHO Geneva

  135. Zisook S, McAdams LA, Kuck J, et al. (1999) Depressive symptoms in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 156:1736–1743

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Zuroff DC, Moskowitz DS, Cote S (1999) Dependency self-criticism interpersonal behaviour and affect: Evolutionary perspectives. Br J Clin Psychol 38:231–250

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, UK

    Max Birchwood & Rachel Upthegrove

  2. School of Health & Related Research (ScHARR), University of Sheffield, UK

    Zaffer Iqbal

Authors
  1. Max Birchwood
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Zaffer Iqbal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Rachel Upthegrove
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Birchwood, M., Iqbal, Z. & Upthegrove, R. Psychological pathways to depression in schizophrenia. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 255, 202–212 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-005-0588-4

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-005-0588-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation