Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Modern reconstruction techniques for oral and pharyngeal defects after tumor resection

  • Review Article
  • Published:
European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Several techniques have been developed to reconstruct oral and pharyngeal defects following surgery, in order to restore function and cosmesis. These are primary closure, skin grafts, local transposition of skin, mucosa and/or muscle, regional flaps and free vascularized flaps. Because of the ‘bulky’, pedicled nature and problems with the donor area of locoregional flaps, and consequently frequently unsatisfactory functional results, free vascularized flaps have gained popularity during the last decade. The authors review the current options available to give physicians, who are not experienced in the field of reconstruction in the head and neck, an impression of the range of techniques available for reconstruction of oral and pharyngeal defects following tumor resection. For reconstruction of oral cavity and pharyngeal defects, fasciocutaneous (e.g. radial forearm and anterolateral thigh flaps) and myocutaneous free flaps (e.g. rectus abdominis and latissimus dorsi) have proven to be very reliable. Free vascularized osteocutaneous flaps (e.g. fibula and iliac crest) permit reconstructive options for bony defects of the mandible or maxilla that can be adapted to a variety of defects. Depending on the site, size and involved tissues of the surgical defect and patient factors, a variety of reconstructive options are available. For both soft tissue and bony defects of the upper aerodigestive tract, microvascular free flaps provide good functional outcomes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Mittal BB, Pauloski BR, Haraf DJ, Pelzer HJ, Argiris A, Vokes EE, Rademaker A, Logemann JA (2003) Swallowing dysfunction-preventative and rehabilitation strategies in patients with head-and-neck cancers treated with surgery, radiotherapy, and chemo-therapy: a critical review. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 57:1219–1230

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Borggreven PA, Verdonck-de Leeuw I, Langendijk JA, Doornaert P, Koster MN, Bree R de, Leemans CR (2005) Speech outcome after surgical treatment for oral and oropharyngeal cancer: a longitudinal assessment of patients reconstructed by a microvascular flap. Head Neck 27:785–793

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Andry G, Hamoir M, Leemans CR (2005) The evolving role of surgery in the management of head and neck tumors. Curr Opin Oncol 17:241–248

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. McConnel FM, Pauloski BR, Logemann JA, Rademaker AW, Colangelo L, Shedd D, Carroll W, Lewin J, Johnson J (1998) Functional results of primary closure vs flaps in oropharyngeal reconstruction: a prospective study of speech and swallowing. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 124:625–630

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. McGregor IA (1993) The pursuit of function and cosmesis in managing oral cancer. Br J Plast Surg 46:22–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. McGregor IA, McGrouther DA (1978) Skin-graft reconstruction in carcinoma of the tongue. Head Neck Surg 1:47–51

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Seidl RO, Todt I, Zamani F, Ernst A (2003) Modified set back tongue flap: an alternative surgical approach in the reconstruction of defects of the base of the tongue. HNO 51:558–562

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Bakamjian VY (1968) Total reconstruction of pharynx with medially based deltopectoral skin flap. N Y State J Med 68:2771–2778

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Ariyan S (1979) The pectoralis major myocutaneous flap. A versatile flap for reconstruction in the head and neck. Plast Reconstr Surg 63:73–81

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Quillen CG, Shearin JC Jr, Georgiade NG (1978) Use of the latissimus dorsi myocutaneous island flap for reconstruction in the head and neck area: case report. Plast Reconstr Surg 62:113–117

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Conley J (1972) The use of regional flaps in major head and neck surgery. J Otolaryngol Soc Aust 3:303–306

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Tan KC, Tan BK (2000) Extended lower trapezius island myocutaneous flap: a fasciomyocutaneous flap based on the dorsal scapular artery. Plast Reconstr Surg 105:1758–1763

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Abubaker AO, Abouzgia MB (2002) The temporalis muscle flap in reconstruction of intraoral defects: an appraisal of the technique. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 94:24–30

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Liu R, Gullane P, Brown D, Irish J (2001) Pectoralis major myocutaneous pedicled flap in head and neck reconstruction: retrospective review of indications and results in 244 consecutive cases at the Toronto General Hospital. J Otolaryngol 30:34–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Vartanian JG, Carvalho AL, Carvalho SM, Mizobe L, Magrin J, Kowalski LP (2004) Pectoralis major and other myofascial/myocutaneous flaps in head and neck cancer reconstruction: experience with 437 cases at a single institution. Head Neck 26:1018–1023

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Daniel RK, Taylor GI (1973) Distant transfer of an island flap by microvascular anastomoses. A clinical technique. Plast Reconstr Surg 52:111–117

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Beausang ES, McKay D, Brown DH, Irish JC, Gilbert R, Gullane PJ, Lipa JE, Neligan PC (2003) Deep inferior epigastric artery perforator flaps in head and neck reconstruction. Ann Plast Surg 51:561–563

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Kimata Y, Uchiyama K, Ebihara S, Yoshizumi T, Asai M, Saikawa M, Hayashi R, Jitsuiki Y, Majima K, Ohyama W, Haneda T, Nakatsuka T, Harii K (1997) Versatility of free anterolateral thigh flap for reconstruction of head and neck defects. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 123:1325–1331

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Khouri RK (1992) Free flap surgery. The second decade. Clin Plast Surg 19:757–761

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Nakatsuka T, Harii K, Asato H, Takushima A, Ebihara S, Kimata Y, Yamada A, Ueda K, Ichioka S (2003) Analytic review of 2372 free flap transfers for head and neck reconstruction following cancer resection. J Reconstr Microsurg 19:363–368 discussion 369

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Hara I, Gellrich NC, Duker J, Schon R, Nilius M, Fakler O, Schmelzeisen R, Ozeki S, Honda T (2003) Evaluation of swallowing function after intraoral soft tissue reconstruction with microvascular free flaps. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 32:593–599

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Sabri A (2003) Oropharyngeal reconstruction: current state of the art. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 11:251–254

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Seidenberg BS, Rosenak ES, Hurwitt ES, Som ML (1959) Immediate reconstruction of the cervical esophagus by a revascularized isolated jejunal segment. Ann Surg 149:162–171

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Rinaldo A, Shaha AR, Wei WI, Silver CE, Ferlito A (2002) Microvascular free flaps: a major advance in head and neck reconstruction. Acta Otolaryngol 122:779–784

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Genden EM, Rinaldo A, Suárez C, Wei WI, Bradley PJ, Ferlito A (2004) Complications of free flap transfers for head and neck reconstruction following cancer resection. Oral Oncol 40:979–984

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Seikaly H, Rieger J, Wolfaardt J, Moysa G, Harris J, Jha N (2003) Functional outcomes after primary oropharyngeal cancer resection and reconstruction with the radial forearm free flap. Laryngoscope 113:897–904

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Tsue TT, Desyatnikova SS, Deleyiannis FW, Futran ND, Stack BC Jr, Weymuller EA Jr, Glenn MG (1997) Comparison of cost and function in reconstruction of the posterior oral cavity and oropharynx. Free vs pedicled soft tissue transfer. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 123:731–737

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Pribaz J, Stephens W, Crespo L, Gifford G (1992) A new intraoral flap: facial artery musculomucosal (FAMM) flap. Plast Reconstr Surg 90:421–429

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Cohen IK, Edgerton MT (1971) Transbuccal flap for reconstruction of the floor of mouth. Plast Reconstr Surg 48:8–10

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Dolivet G, Gangloff P, Sarini J, Ton Van J, Garron X, Guillemin F, Lefebvre JL (2005) Modification of the infra hyoid musculo-cutaneous flap. Eur J Surg Oncol 31:294–298

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Deganello A, Bree R de, Dolivet G, Leemans CR (2005) Infrahyoid myocutaneous flap reconstruction after wide local excision of a Merkel cell carcinoma. Acta Otorhinolaryngol Ital 25:50–54

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Magrin J, Kowalski LP, Santo GE, Waksmann G, DiPaula RA (1993) Infrahyoid myocutaneous flap in head and neck reconstruction. Head Neck 15:522–525

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Genden EM, Buchbinder D, Urken ML (2004) The submental island flap for palatal reconstruction: a novel technique. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 62:387–390

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Vural E, Suen JY (2000) The submental island flap in head and neck reconstruction. Head Neck 22:572–578

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Pistre V, Pelissier P, Martin D, Lim A, Baudet J (2001) Ten years of experience with the submental flap. Plast Reconstr Surg 108:1576–1581

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Colella G, Tartaro G, Giudice A (2004) The buccal fat pad in oral reconstruction. Br J Plast Surg 57:326–329

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Van Lierop AC, Fagan JJ (2007) Buccinator myomucosal flap: clinical results and review of anatomy, surgical technique and applications. J Laryngol Otol 22:1–7 (Epub ahead of print)

    Google Scholar 

  38. Soutar DS, Scheker LR, Tanner NSB, McGregor IA (1983) The radial forearm flap. A versatile method for intra-oral reconstruction. Br J Past Surg 36:1–8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Evans GR, Schusterman MA, Kroll SS, Miller MJ, Reece GP, Robb GL, Ainslie N (1994) The radial forearm free flap for head and neck reconstruction: a review. Am J Surg 168:446–450

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Lovie MJ, Duncan GM, Glasson DW (1984) The ulnar artery forearm free flap. Br J Plast Surg 37:486–492

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Song R, Song YG, Yu Y, Song YL (1982) The upper arm free flap. Clin Plast Surg 9:27–35

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Chandrasekhar B, Lorant JA, Terz JJ (1990) Parascapular free flaps for head and neck reconstruction. Am J Surg 160:450–453

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Hayden RE, Deschler DG (1999) Lateral thigh free flap for head and neck reconstruction. Laryngoscope 109:1490–1494

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Yang GF, Chen PJ, Gao YZ, Liu XY, Li J, Jiang SX, He SP (1997) Forearm free skin flap transplantation: a report of 56 cases. 1981. Br J Plast Surg 50:162–165

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Urken ML, Biller HF (1994) A new bilobed design for the sensate radial forearm flap to preserve tongue mobility following significant glossectomy. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 120:26–31

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Savant DN, Patel SG, Deshmukh SP, Gujarati R, Bhathena HM, Kavarana NM (1995) Folded free radial forearm flap for reconstruction of full-thickness defects of the cheek. Head Neck 17:293–296

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Bree R de, Hartley C, Smeele LE, Kuik DJ, Quak JJ, Leemans CR (2004) Evaluation of donor site function and morbidity of the fasciocutaneous radial forearm flap. Laryngoscope 114:1973–1976

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Ross GL, Dunn R, Kirkpatrick J, Koshy CE, Alkureishi LW, Bennett N, Soutar DS, Camilleri IG (2003) To thin or not to thin: the use of the anterolateral thigh flap in the reconstruction of intraoral defects. Br J Plast Surg 56:409–413

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Giovanoli P, Frey M, Schmid S, Flury R (1996) Free jejunum transfers for functional reconstruction after tumour resections in the oral cavity and the pharynx: changes of morphology and function. Microsurgery 17:535–544

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Gallagher J, Webb A, Ilankovan V (2002) Gastro-omental free flaps in oral and oropharyngeal reconstruction: surgical anatomy, complications, outcomes. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 40:32–36

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Urken ML (1991) Composite free flaps in oromandibular reconstruction. Review of the literature. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 117:724–732

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Cordeiro PG, Disa JJ, Hidalgo DA, Hu QY (1999) Reconstruction of the mandible with osseous free flaps: a 10-year experience with 150 consecutive patients. Plast Reconstr Surg 104:1314–1320

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Shpitzer T, Neligan PC, Gullane PJ, Boyd BJ, Gur E, Rotstein LE, Brown DH, Irish JC, Freeman JE (1999) The free iliac crest and fibula flaps in vascularized oromandibular reconstruction: comparison of long-term evaluation. Head Neck 21:639–647

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Urken ML, Bridger AG, Zur KB, Genden EM (2001) The scapular osteofasciocutaneous flap: a 12-year experience. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 127:862–869

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Villaret DB, Futran NA (2003) The indications and outcomes in the use of osteocutaneous radial forearm flap. Head Neck 25:475–481

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Shockley WW, Weissler MC, Pillsbury HC (1991) Immediate mandibular replacement using reconstruction plates. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 117:745–749

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Blackwell KE, Buchbinder D, Urken ML (1996) Lateral mandibular reconstruction using soft-tissue free flaps and plates. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 122:672–678

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Mariani PB, Kowalski LP, Magrin J (2006) Reconstruction of large defects postmandibulectomy for oral cancer using plates and myocutaneous flaps: a long-term follow-up. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 35:427–432

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Futran ND, Haller JR (1999) Considerations for free-flap reconstruction of the hard palate. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 125:665–669

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Brown JS, Jones DC, Summerwill A, Rogers SN, Howell RA, Cawood JI, Vaughan ED (2002) Vascularized iliac crest with internal oblique muscle for immediate reconstruction after maxillectomy. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 40:183–190

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Okay DJ, Genden E, Buchbinder D, Urken M (2001) Prosthodontic guidelines for surgical reconstruction of the maxilla: a classification system of defects. J Prosthet Dent 86:352–363

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Urken ML, Buchbinder D, Costantino PD, Sinha U, Okay D, Lawson W, Biller HF (1998) Oromandibular reconstruction using microvascular composite flaps: report of 210 cases. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 124:46–55

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Genden EM, Okay D, Stepp MT, Rezaee RP, Mojica JS, Buchbinder D, Urken ML (2003) Comparison of functional and quality-of-life outcomes in patients with and without palatomaxillary reconstruction: a preliminary report. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 129:775–780

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. de Azevedo JF (1986) Modified pectoralis major myocutaneous flap with partial preservation of the muscle: a study of 55 cases. Head Neck Surg 8:327–331

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Lacombe V, Blackwell KE (1999) Radial forearm free flap for soft palate reconstruction. Arch Facial Plast Surg 1:130–132

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Brown JS, Zuydam AC, Jones DC, Rogers SN, Vaughan ED (1997) Functional outcome in soft palate reconstruction using a radial forearm free flap in conjunction with a superiorly based pharyngeal flap. Head Neck 19:524–534

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Tiwari R, Karim AB, Greven AJ, Snow GB (1993) Total glossectomy with laryngeal preservation. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 119:945–949

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Magrin J, Kowalski LP, Saboia M, Saboia RP (1996) Major glossectomy: end results of 106 cases. Eur J Cancer B Oral Oncol 32B:407–412

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Kimata Y, Sakuraba M, Namba Y, Hayashi R, Ebihara S (2005) Functional reconstruction with free flaps following ablation of oropharyngeal cancer. Int J Clin Oncol 10:229–233

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Mahieu HF, Bree R de, Westerveld GJ, Leemans CR (1999) Laryngeal suspension and upper esophageal sphincter myotomy as surgical option for treatment of severe aspiration. Op Tech Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 10:305–310

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Kimata Y, Sakuraba M, Hishinuma S, Ebihara S, Hayashi R, Asakage T, Nakatsuka T, Harii K (2003) Analysis of the relations between the shape of the reconstructed tongue and postoperative functions after subtotal or total glossectomy. Laryngoscope 113:905–909

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Kimata Y, Uchiyama K, Ebihara S, Saikawa M, Hayashi R, Haneda T, Ohyma W, Kishimoto S, Asai M, Nakatsuka T, Harii K (2000) Postoperative complications and functional results after total glossectomy with microvascular reconstruction. Plast Reconstr Surg 106:1028–1035

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Weber RS, Ohlms L, Bowman J, Jacob R, Goepfert H (1991) Functional results after total or near total glossectomy with laryngeal preservation. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 117:512–515

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Jol JAD, Quak JJ, de Bree R, Leemans CR (2003) Larynx preservation for advanced posterior pharyngeal wall carcinoma with free flap reconstruction: a critical appraisal. Oral Oncol 39:552–558

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Alvarez JC, Suárez C, Sota E, Rodrigo JP, Fernández JA, Llorente JL, Diaz C (1997) Tumours of the posterior pharyngeal wall: the use of the platysma flap. Clin Otolaryngol 22:246–250

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Hoorweg JJ, Rauwerda JA, Croll GA, Mackaay AJ, Risse EK, De Vries N, Tiwari RM (1994) Free vascularized jejunum interposition for pharyngoesophageal reconstruction after total laryngopharyngectomy. Clin Otolaryngol 19:496–501

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Cho BC, Kim M, Lee JH, Byun JS, Park JS, Baik BS (1998) Pharyngoesophageal reconstruction with a tubed free radial forearm flap. J Reconstr Microsurg 14:535–540

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Baek CH, Kim BS, Son YI, Ha B (2002) Pharyngoesophageal reconstruction with lateral thigh free flap. Head Neck 24:975–981

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Wadsworth JT, Futran N, Eubanks TR (2002) Laparoscopic harvest of the jejunal free flap for reconstruction of hypopharyngeal and cervical esophageal defects. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 128:1384–1387

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Su CY, Chiang YC (1995) The fabricated radial forearm flap in pharyngolaryngeal surgery: saliva leakage and its prevention. Br J Plast Surg 48:212–217

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Deschler DG, Doherty ET, Reed CG, Anthony JP, Singer MI (1994) Tracheoesophageal voice following tubed free radial forearm flap reconstruction of the neopharynx. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 103:929–936

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Anthony JP, Singer MI, Mathes SJ (1994) Pharyngoesophageal reconstruction using the tubed free radial forearm flap. Clin Plast Surg 21:137–147

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Yu P, Lewin JS, Reece GP, Robb GL (2006) Comparison of clinical and functional outcomes and hospital costs following pharyngoesophageal reconstruction with the anterolateral thigh free flap versus the jejunal flap. Plast Reconstr Surg 117:968–974

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Clark JR, Gilbert R, Irish J, Brown D, Neligan P, Gullane PJ (2006) Morbidity after flap reconstruction of hypopharyngeal defects. Laryngoscope 116:173–181

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Llorente Pendás JL, López Llames A, González JJ, Navarrete Guijosa F, Rodríguez Prado N, Suárez Nieto C (2006) Gastric pull-up reconstruction in hypopharyngeal and cervical oesophageal cancer (in Spanish). Acta Otorrinolaringol Esp 57:242–246

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Triboulet JP, Mariette C, Chevalier D, Amrouni H (2001) Surgical management of carcinoma of the hypopharynx and cervical esophagus: analysis of 209 cases. Arch Surg 136:1164–1170

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Urken ML, Blackwell K, Biller HF (1997) Reconstruction of the laryngopharynx after hemicricoid/hemithyroid cartilage resection. Preliminary functional results. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 123:1213–1222

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Schwager K, Hoppe F, Hagen R, Brunner FX (1999) Free-flap reconstruction for laryngeal preservation after partial laryngectomy in patients with extended tumors of the oropharynx and hypopharynx. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 256:280–282

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Urken ML, Futran N, Moscoso JF, Biller HF (1994) A modified design of the buried radial forearm free flap for use in oral cavity and pharyngeal reconstruction. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 120:1233–1239

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Gal TJ, Futran ND (2002) Outcomes research in head and neck reconstruction. Facial Plast Surg 18:113–117

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Schliephake H, Jamil MU (2002) Impact of intraoral soft-tissue reconstruction on the development of quality of life after ablative surgery in patients with oral cancer. Plast Reconstr Surg 109:421–430

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Hsiao HT, Leu YS, Lin CC (2002) Primary closure versus radial forearm flap reconstruction after hemiglossectomy: functional assessment of swallowing and speech. Ann Plast Surg 49:612–616

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Nicoletti G, Soutar DS, Jackson MS, Wrench AA, Robertson G (2004) Chewing and swallowing after surgical treatment for oral cancer: functional evaluation in 196 selected cases. Plast Reconstr Surg 114:329–338

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Nicoletti G, Soutar DS, Jackson MS, Wrench AA, Robertson G, Robertson C (2004) Objective assessment of speech after surgical treatment for oral cancer: experience from 196 selected cases. Plast Reconstr Surg 113:114–125

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Su WF, Chen SG, Sheng H (2002) Speech and swallowing function after reconstruction with a radial forearm free flap or a pectoralis major flap for tongue cancer. J Formos Med Assoc 101:472–477

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Colangelo LA, Logemann JA, Pauloski BR, Pelzer JR, Rademaker AW (1996) T stage and functional outcome in oral and oropharyngeal cancer patients. Head Neck 18:259–268

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Haughey BH, Taylor SM, Fuller D (2002) Fasciocutaneous flap reconstruction of the tongue and floor of mouth: outcomes and techniques. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 128:1388–1395

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Logemann JA, Pauloski BR, Rademaker AW, McConnel FM, Heiser MA, Cardinale S, Shedd D, Stein D, Beery Q, Johnson J et al (1993) Speech and swallow function after tonsil/base of tongue resection with primary closure. J Speech Hear Res 36:918–926

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Pauloski BR, Rademaker AW, Logemann JA, Colangelo LA (1998) Speech and swallowing in irradiated and nonirradiated postsurgical oral cancer patients. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 118:616–624

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Vos JD, Burkey BB (2004) Functional outcomes after free flap reconstruction of the upper aerodigestive tract. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 12:305–310

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    Remco de Bree & C. René Leemans

  2. Department of Surgical Sciences, ENT Clinic, University of Udine, Policlinico Universitario, Piazzale S. Maria della Misericordia, 33100, Udine, Italy

    Alessandra Rinaldo & Alfio Ferlito

  3. Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, The Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York, NY, USA

    Eric M. Genden

  4. Department of Otolaryngology, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias, Oviedo, Spain

    Carlos Suárez & Juan Pablo Rodrigo

  5. Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias, Oviedo, Spain

    Carlos Suárez & Juan Pablo Rodrigo

  6. Division of Otolaryngology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa

    Johannes J. Fagan

  7. Department of Head and Neck Surgery and Otorhinolaryngology, Hospital do Câncer AC Camargo, São Paulo, Brazil

    Luiz P. Kowalski

Authors
  1. Remco de Bree
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Alessandra Rinaldo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Eric M. Genden
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Carlos Suárez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Juan Pablo Rodrigo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Johannes J. Fagan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Luiz P. Kowalski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Alfio Ferlito
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. C. René Leemans
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alfio Ferlito.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

de Bree, R., Rinaldo, A., Genden, E.M. et al. Modern reconstruction techniques for oral and pharyngeal defects after tumor resection. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 265, 1–9 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00405-007-0413-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00405-007-0413-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation