Abstract
Living scleractinian corals form a narrow but often conspicuous band of marine life along tropical intertidal shores worldwide but they have generally been considered as outliers of mainstream coral communities and are thus poorly characterized. This study examined coral communities at three intertidal habitats, i.e., reef flats, sloping seawalls, and vertical seawalls, in Singapore, looking at species diversity, abundances, growth forms, and colony sizes. A total of 35 coral species were recorded, of which the majority (51%) were typically of massive growth form. Reef flats had the highest number of species (30), followed by sloping seawalls (21). Species on vertical seawalls (11) were a subset of the two other habitats. Colonies were dominantly massive (72%) and sparsely distributed with average colony densities between 0.05 and 0.4 colonies/m2. Species Porites lobata-lutea complex was widespread and most abundant, comprising 21–30% of colonies in each habitat. Six other species common across all habitats were Dipsastraea speciosa, Favites abdita, Goniastrea retiformis, Platygyra verweyi, Platygyra pini, and Platygyra sinensis. Of these, only colony sizes of G. retiformis (mean ± SE, reef flats 30 ± 4 cm, sloping seawalls 9.5 ± 1.7 cm, vertical seawalls 11.7 ± 1.4 cm) and Porites lobata-lutea complex (41.8 ± 8.3 cm, 26.8 ± 6.3 cm, 12.3 ± 1.6 cm) showed significant differences (p < 0.05) amongst habitats. Relative abundances on the reef flats correlated moderately with those on the sloping seawalls (Pearson’s ρ = 0.6) and vertical seawalls (Pearson’s ρ = 0.7), respectively. Multivariate analyses showed that habitat origin (natural vs man-made) and surface rugosity (heterogeneous vs. homogeneous) were factors that significantly (p < 0.05) differentiated intertidal coral communities. Nevertheless, sloping seawall communities bore higher resemblance to those on natural reef flats than to man-made vertical seawalls in species and growth form richness and also coral densities. These findings highlight interesting opportunities for incorporating coral-friendly designs into existing man-made sloping coastal structures to encourage the growth of coral communities in the intertidal zone.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aguilera MA, Broitman BR, Thiel M (2014) Spatial variability in community composition on a granite breakwater versus natural rocky shores: lack of microhabitats suppresses intertidal biodiversity. Mar Pollut Bull 87:257–268
Airoldi L, Turon X, Perko-Finkel S, Rius M (2015) Corridors for aliens but not for natives: effects of marine urban sprawl at a regional scale. Divers Distrib 21:755–768
Ampou EE, Johan O, Menkes CE, Nio F, Birol F, Ouillon S, Andrefouet S (2017) Coral mortality induced by the 2015–2016 El-Nino in Indonesia: the effect of rapid sea level fall. Biogeosciences 14:817–826
Anderson MJ, Underwood AJ (1994) Effects of substratum on the recruitment and development of an intertidal estuarine fouling assemblage. J Exp Mar Bio Ecol 184:217–236
Andres N, Witman J (1995) Trends in community structure on a Jamaican reef. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 118:305–310
Anthony KRN, Kerswell AP (2007) Coral mortality following extreme low tides and high solar radiation. Mar Biol 151:1623–1631
Belford S, Phillip D (2011) Rapid assessment of a coral reef community in a marginal habitat in the southern Caribbean: a simple way to know what’s out there. Asian J Biol Sci 4:520–531
Bird MI, Fifield LK, Teh T, Chang C, Shirlaw N, Lambeck K (2007) An inflection in the rate of early mid-Holocene eustatic sea-level rise: A new sea-level curve from Singapore. Estuar, Coast Shelf Sci 71:523–536
Bonaldo RM, Hay ME (2014) Seaweed-coral interactions: variance in seaweed allelopathy, coral susceptibility, and potential effects on coral resilience. PLoS ONE 9:e85786. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0085786
Brown BE, Holley MC (1984) Coral assemblages of intertidal reef flats at Ko Phuket, Thailand. Atoll Res Bull 30:1–10
Brown BE, Howard LS, Tissier MDL (1986) Variation in the dominance and population structure of intertidal corals around Ko Phuket, Thailand. Phuket Marine Biol Center Res Bull 41:1–9
Brown BE, Le Tissier M, Scoffin T, Tudhope A (1990) Evaluation of the environmental impact of dredging on intertidal coral reefs at Ko Phuket, Thailand, using ecological and physiological parameters. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 65:273–281
Bull G (1982) Scleractinian coral communities of two inshore high island fringing reefs at Magnetic Island, North Queensland. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 7:267–272
Bulleri F (2005) Experimental evaluation of early patterns of colonisation of space on rocky shores and seawalls. Mar Environ Res 60:335–374
Bulleri F, Chapman MG (2004) Intertidal assemblages on artificial and natural habitats in marinas on the north-west coast of Italy. Mar Biol 145:381–391
Bulleri F, Chapman MG, Underwood AJ (2005) Intertidal assemblages on seawalls and vertical rocky shores in Sydney Harbour, Australia. Austral Ecol 30:655–667
Carleton JH, Sammarco PW (1987) Effects of substratum irregularity on success of coral settlement: quantification by comparative geomorphological techniques. Bull Mar Sci 40:85–98
Chadwick-Furman NE (1996) Reef coral diversity and global change. Glob Change Biol 2:559–568
Chao A (1984) Non-parametric estimation of the number of classes in a population. Scand J Stat 11:265–270
Chao A, Colwell RK, Lin C-W, Gotelli N (2009) Sufficient sampling for asymptotic minimum species richness estimators. Ecology 90:1125–1133
Chao A, Ma K, Hsieh T, Chiu C (2015) Online Program SpadeR (Species-richness Prediction and Diversity Estimation in R). Program and User’s Guide published at http://chao.stat.nthu.edu.tw/wordpress/software_download/.
Chapman MG, Bulleri F (2003) Intertidal seawalls — new features of landscape in intertidal environments. Landsc Urban Plan 62:159–172
Chapman MG, Underwood AJ (2011) Evaluation of ecological engineering of “armoured” shorelines to improve their value as habitat. J Exp Mar Bio Ecol 400:302–313
Chim C, Tan KS (2009) Vertical distribution, spawning and recruitment of Siphonaria guamensis (Gastropoda: Pulmonata) on a seawall in Singapore. The Raffles Bull Zool Suppl 22:269–278
Chou LM (1996) Response of Singapore reefs to land reclamation. Galaxea 13:85–92
Chou LM, Wong FJ (1985) Reef community structure of Pulau Salu (Singapore) Proceedings of the Fifth International Coral Reef Symposium 6:285–290
Chou LM, Lim TM (1986) A preliminary study of the coral community on artificial and natural substrates. Malayan Nature Journal 39:225–229
Chou LM, Chia LS (1991) The marine environment. In: Chia LS, Rahman A (eds) The biophysical environment of Singapore. Geography Teachers’ Association of Singapore, Singapore, pp 155–184
Chou LM, Low JKY, Loo MGK (1994) The state of coral reefs and coral reef research in Singapore. In: Wilkinson C, Sudara S, Chou LM (eds) Third ASEAN-Australia Symposium on Living Coastal Resources. Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand, pp 77–88
Chou LM, Ng CSL, Chan SMJ, Seow LA (2010) Natural coral colonization of a marina seawall in Singapore. J Coastal Dev 14:11–17
Chow GSE, Chan YKS, Jain SS, Huang D (2019) Light limitation selects for depth generalists in urbanised reef coral communities. Mar Environ Res 147:101–112
Chuang S (1961) On Malayan Shore. Muwu Shosa, Singapore, p 225
Chuang SH (1973) Life of the seashore. In: Chuang SH (ed) Animal Life and Nature in Singapore. Singapore University Press, Singapore, pp 150–174
Clark T (1998) The distribution of hermatypic scleractinian corals at Cape D’Aguilar, Hong Kong. In: Third International Conference on the Marine Biology of the South China Sea, pp 151–164
Clarke KR, Somerfield PJ, Chapman MG (2006) On resemblance measures for ecological studies, including taxonomic dissimilarities and a zero-adjusted Bray-Curtis coefficient for denuded assemblages. J Exp Mar Bio Ecol 330:55–80
Clarke KR, Warwick RM (1998) A taxonomic distinctness index and its statistical properties. J Appl Ecol 35:523–531
Clements CS, Rasher DB, Hoey AS, Bonito VE, Hay ME (2018) Spatial and temporal limits of coral-macroalgal competition: the negative impacts of macroalgal density, proximity, and history of contact. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 586:11–20
Davis JP, Pitt KA, Connolly RM, Fry B (2015) Community structure and dietary pathways for invertebrates on intertidal coral reef flats. Food Webs 3:7–16
Dikou A, van Woesik R (2006) Survival under chronic stress from sediment load: Spatial patterns of hard coral communities in the southern islands of Singapore. Mar Pollut Bull 52:1340–1354
Ditlev H (1978) Zonation of corals (Scleractinia: Coelenterata) on intertidal reef flats at Ko Phuket, Eastern Indian Ocean. Mar Biol 47:29–39
Done TJ (1982) Patterns in the distribution of coral communities across the central Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs 1:95–107
Done TJ (1983) Coral zonation: Its nature and significance. In: Barnes DJ (ed) Perspectives on Coral Reefs. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Australia, pp 107–147
Ferrario F, Beck MW, Storlazzi CD, Micheli F, Shepard CC, Airoldi L (2014) The effectiveness of coral reefs for coastal hazard risk reduction and adaptation. Nat Commun 5:3794
Firth LB, Thompson RC, Bohn K, Abbiati M, Airoldi L, Bouma TJ, Bozzeda F, Ceccherelli VU, Colangelo MA, Evans A, Ferrario F, Hanley ME, Hinz H, Hoggart SPG, Jackson JE, Moore P, Morgan EH, Perkol-Finkel S, Skov MW, Strain EM, van Belzen J, Hawkins SJ (2014) Between a rock and a hard place: environmental engineering considerations when designing coastal defence structures. Coast Eng 87:122–135
Goh AH, Sasekumar A (1981) The community structure of the fringing coral reef, Cape Rachado, Malaya. Atoll Res Bull 244:1–11
Goh NKC, Chua CYY, Chou LM (1994) Depth-related morphology of scleractinian corals on Singapore reefs. In: Sudara S, Wilkinson CR, Chou LM (eds) Proceedings, Third ASEAN-Australia Symposium on Living Coastal Resources, vol 2. Research Papers. Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand, pp 61–67
Guest JR, Tun K, Low J, Vergés A, Marzinelli EM, Campbell AH, Bauman AG, Feary DA, Chou LM, Steinberg PD (2016) 27 years of benthic and coral community dynamics on turbid, highly urbanised reefs off Singapore. Sci Rep 6:36260. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep36260
Huang D, Chou LM, Todd PA, Ang KH, Boon P, Cheng L (2006a) Algal and invertebrate diversity of the intertidal zone at Labrador Nature Reserve, Singapore. Malayan Nat J 59:93–102
Huang D, Todd PA, Chou LM, Ang KH, Boon PY, Cheng L, Ling H, Lee W-J (2006b) Effects of shore height and visitor pressure on the diversity and distribution of four intertidal taxa at Labrador Beach, Singapore. The Raffles Bull Zool 54:477–484
Huang D, Tun KPP, Chou LM, Todd PA (2009) An inventory of zooxanthellate scleractinian corals in Singapore, including 33 new records. The Raffles Bull Zool Suppl 12:69–80
Hughes TP (1987) Skeletal density and growth form of corals. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 35:259–266
Hughes TP, Rodrigues MJ, Bellwood DR, Ceccarelli D, Hoegh-Guldberg O, McCook L, Moltschaniwskyj N, Pratchett MS, Steneck RS, Willis B (2007) Phase shifts, herbivory, and the resilience of coral reefs to climate change. Curr Biol 17:360–365
International Year of the Reef (2008) Organising Committee and the Singapore Blue Plan 2009 Committee (2009) Annex C, Examples of blogs and webpages that feature contents about marine life in Singapore. The Singapore Blue Plan 2019. Singapore, pp 31–34
Kostina EE, Tsurpalo AP, Gulbin VV (2016) The species composition and distribution of macrobenthic communities in the intertidal zone of Vietnam. In: Adrianov AV, Lutaenko KA (eds) Biodiversity of the Western Part of the South China Sea. A.V, Zhirmunsky Institute of Marine Biology, Vladivostok, Russia, pp 139–278
Loke LHL, Todd PA (2016) Increasing the complexity of heterogeneity also has a positive effect on biodiversity. Ecology 97:383–393
Lai S, Loke LHL, Hilton MJ, Bouma TJ, Todd PA (2015) The effects of urbanisation on coastal habitats and the potential for ecological engineering: a Singapore case study. Ocean Coast Manag 103:78–85
Lai S, Loke LHL, Bouma TJ, Todd PA (2018) Biodiversity surveys and stable isotope analyses reveal key differences in intertidal assemblages between tropical seawalls and rocky shores. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 587:41–53
Lam KM, Todd PA (2013) Spatial differences in subtidal epibiotic community structure in Marina at Keppel Bay, Singapore. Nat Singapore 6:197–206
Lam NWY, Huang R, Chan BKK (2009) Vertical artificial seawalls and natural rocky shores: a case study from Victoria Harbour, Hong Kong. Zool Stud 48:184–195
Latypov YY (1986) Coral communities of the Namsu Islands (Gulf of Siam, South China Sea). Mar Ecol Prog Ser 29:261–270
Lee AC, Sin TM (2009) Intertidal assemblages on coastal defence structures in Singapore II. Contrasts between islands and the mainland. The Raffles Bull Zool Suppl 22:255–268
Lee AC, Tan KS, Sin TM (2009) Intertidal assemblages on coastal defence structures in Singapore I: a faunal study. The Raffles Bull Zool Suppl 22:237–254
Lee T-H, Li M-H (2013) Intertidal assemblages on artificial structures and natural rocky habitats on Taiwan’s north coast. The Raffles Bull Zool 61:331–342
Lim LJW, Loh JBY, Lim AJS, Tan BYX, Ip YCA, Neo ML, Tan R, Huang D (2020) Diversity and distribution of intertidal marine species in Singapore. The Raffles Bull Zool 68:396–403
Loke LHL, Liao LM, Bouma TJ, Todd PA (2015) Succession of seawall algal communities on artificial substrates. The Raffles Bull Zool Suppl 32:1–10
Loya Y (1972) Community structure and species diversity of hermatypic corals at Eilat, Red Sea. Mar Biol 13:100–123
Madin JS, Anderson KD, Andreasen MH, Bridge TCL, Cairns SD, Connolly SR, Darling ES, Diaz M, Falster DS, Franklin EC, Gates RD, Harmer AMT, Hoogenboom MO, Huang D, Keith SA, Kosnik MA, Kuo C-Y, Lough JM, Lovelock CE, Luiz O, Martinelli J, Mizerek T, Pandolfi JM, Pochon X, Pratchett MS, Putnam HM, Roberts TE, Stat M, Wallace CC, Widman E, Baird AH (2016) The Coral Trait Database, a curated database of trait information for coral species from the global oceans. Sci Data 3:160017. https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2016.17
Maragos J (1974) Coral communities on a seaward reef slope, Fanning Island. Pac Sci 28:257–278
Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore (2016) Singapore Tide Tables Year 2017 Hydrographic Department, Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore, Singapore
McClanahan TR, Muthiga NA (2014) Community change and evidence for variable warm-water temperature adaptation of corals in Northern Male Atoll, Maldives. Mar Pollut Bull 80:107–113
Morton J (1990) The shore ecology of the tropical Pacific. Unesco Regional Office for Science and Technology for South-East Asia, Jakarta, Indonesia, p 282
Nagelkerken I, van der Velde G, Gorissen MW, Meijer GJ, Van’t Hof T, den Hartog C, (2000) Importance of mangroves, seagrass beds and the shallow coral reef as a nursery for important coral reef fishes, using a visual census technique. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 51:31–44
Ng CSL, Chen D, Chou LM (2012) Hard coral assemblages on seawalls in Singapore. Contrib Marine Sci 2012:75–79
Ng CSL, Lim JX, Sam SQ, Kikuzawa YP, Toh TC, Wee TW, Sim WT, Ng NK, Huang D, Chou LM (2019) Variability in skeletal bulk densities of common hard corals in Southeast Asia. Coral Reefs 38:1133–1143
Ong JLJ, Tan KS (2012) Observations on the subtidal fouling community on jetty pilings in the southern islands of Singapore. Contrib Marine Sci 2012:121–126
Pan H-Y, Chao A, Foissner W (2009) A nonparametric lower bound for the number of species shared by multiple communities. J Agric Biol Environ Stat 14:452–468
Perry CT (2003) Coral reefs in a high-latitude, siliciclastic barrier island setting: reef framework and sediment production at Inhaca Island, southern Mozambique. Coral Reefs 22:485–497
Qasim S, Wafar M (1979) Occurrence of living corals at several places along the west coast of India. Mahasagar-Bull Nat Inst Oceanogr 12:53–58
Rashid R (1980) The Pulau Paya reef system. The Malaysian Agric J 53:240–253
Raymundo LJ, Burdick D, Hoot WC, Miller RM, Brown V, Reynolds T, Gault J, Idechong J, Fifer J, Williams A (2019) Successive bleaching events cause mass coral mortality in Guam, Micronesia. Coral Reefs 38:677–700
Scoffin TP, Brown BE, Dunne RP, Tissier MDAL (1997) The controls on growth form of intertidal massive corals, Phuket, South Thailand. Palaios 12:237–248
Scott PJB (1984) The corals of Hong Kong. Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong, p 120
Sheppard C, Dixon DJ, Gourlay M, Sheppard A, Payet R (2005) Coral mortality increases wave energy reaching shores protected by reef flats: Examples from the Seychelles. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 64:223–234
Smithers S, Larcombe P (2003) Late Holocene initiation and growth of a nearshore turbid-zone coral reef: Paluma Shoals, central Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Coral Reefs 22:499–505
Suharsono NW, Supono SJ, Budiyanto A (2012) Status of coral reefs in the Lembeh Strait and adjacent water, North Sulawesi. Marine Res Indonesia 37:57–61
Tan KS, Acerbi E, Lauro FM (2016) Marine habitats and biodiversity of Singapore’s coastal waters: a review. Reg Stud Mar Sci 8:340–352
Tan YZ, Ng CSL, Chou LM (2012) Natural colonisation of a marina seawall by scleractinian corals along Singapore’s east coast. Nat Singapore 5:177–183
Tay Y, Todd P, Rosshaug P, Chou L (2012) Simulating the transport of broadcast coral larvae among the Southern Islands of Singapore. Aquat Biol 15:283–297
Todd PA, Chou LM (2005) A tale of survival: Labrador Park, Singapore. Coral Reefs 24:391–391
Toh KB, Ng CSL, Wu B, Toh TC, Cheo PR, Tun K, Chou LM (2017) Spatial variability of epibiotic assemblages on marina pontoons in Singapore. Urban Ecosyst 20:183–197
Toramae J (2016) Notes on some outlying reefs and island of Singapore. Mynah Magazine 1:128–137
Warton DI (2018) Why you cannot transform your way out of trouble for small counts. Biometrics 74:362–368
Wong JSY, Chan YKS, Ng CSL, Tun KPP, Darling ES, Huang D (2018) Comparing patterns of taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic diversity in reef coral communities. Coral Reefs 37:737–750
Acknowledgements
This research includes contributions from the Energy Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University (under EIRP grant S14-1067-NRF-EIPO-EIRP-IHL) and the National Research Foundation, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore under the Marine Science Research and Development Programme (MSRDP P-05). The authors credit Helen Wong for the map of Singapore and acknowledge the continuing support of the St John’s Island National Marine Laboratory, a national asset under the National Research Foundation.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Topic Editor Dr. Anastazia Teresa Banaszak
Supplementary Information
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lee, Yl., Lam, S.Q.Y., Tay, T.S. et al. Composition and structure of tropical intertidal hard coral communities on natural and man-made habitats. Coral Reefs 40, 685–700 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-021-02059-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-021-02059-0