Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

New evidence of possible crop introduction to north-eastern Europe during the Stone Age

Cerealia pollen finds in connection with the Akali Neolithic settlement, East Estonia

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Vegetation History and Archaeobotany Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Long term (from the Mesolithic to the Bronze Age) habitation of the Akali settlement on a clearly defined bog-island in East Estonia is used as an example of transitional development from a prosperous foragers’ habitation centre to a hinterland of established farming cultures, taking place through availability, substitution and consolidation phases of crop farming in the boreal forest zone. The pre-Neolithic finds of Triticum and Cannabis t. pollen at c. 5600 b.c. are interpreted as possible indications of the acquaintance of foragers with farming products, through contacts with central European agrarian tribes during the availability phase. The substitution phase is marked by more or less scattered pollen finds of various cereals and hemp and, at Akali, is connected with Neolithic period 4900–1800 b.c. An increasing importance of crop farming in the economy is characteristic of the consolidation phase, but because natural conditions are unfavourable for arable land-use, a regression of human presence is recorded during the second part of the Neolithic. The settlement was abandoned during the Bronze Age at the time when crop farming become the basis of the economy in Estonia. The re-colonisation of the area, traced to ca. a.d. 1200, took place for political reasons rather than through increasing suitability of the landscape.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Andersen S-T (1979) Identification of wild grass and cereal pollen. In: Aaby B (ed) Årbog 1978. Danmarks Geologiske Undersøgelse, pp 69–92

  • de Beaulieu J-L, Goeury C (1987) Zonation automatique applique l’analyse pollinique: exemple de la narse d’Ampoix (Puy de Dome, France). Bulletin AFEQ 1:49–61

    Google Scholar 

  • Behre K-E (1981) The interpretation of anthropogenic indicators in pollen diagrams. Pollen et Spores 23:225–245

    Google Scholar 

  • Behre K-E (1988) The role of man in European vegetation history. In: Huntley B, Webb T III (eds) Vegetation history. Handbook of vegetation science 7. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp 633–672

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennett KD (1994) ‘psimpoll’ version 2.23: a C program for analysing pollen data and plotting pollen diagrams. INQUA Commission for the study of the Holocene: Working group on data-handling methods. Newsletter 11:4–6

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennett KD (1996) Determination of the number of zones in a biostratigraphical sequence. New Phytologist 132:155–170

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bennett KD (1998) Documentation for psimpoll 3.01 and pscomb 1.03. C programs for plotting pollen diagrams and analysing pollen data. From URL: http://www.kv.geo.uu.se/psimpoll_ manual/3.00/psimpoll.htm

  • Berglund BE (1991) The cultural landscape during 6000 years in southern Sweden – the Ystad project. Ecological Bulletins No. 41. Munksgaard, Copenhagen

  • Berglund BE, Ralska-Jasiewiczowa M (1986) Pollen analysis and pollen diagrams. In: Berglund BE (ed) Handbook of Holocene palaeoecology and palaeohydrology. Wiley, Chichester, pp 455–484

    Google Scholar 

  • Beug H-J (1961) Leitfaden der Pollenbestimmung für Mitteleuropa und angrenzende Gebiete. Lieferung 1. Fischer, Stuttgart

  • Birks HJB, Line JM (1992) The use of rarefaction analysis for estimating palynological richness from Quaternary pollen-analytical data. The Holocene 2:1–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickson C (1988) Distinguishing cereal from wild type grass pollen: some limitations. Circaea 5:67–71

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards KJ (1988) The Hunter-Gatherer/Agricultural Transition and the Pollen Record in the British Isles. In: Birks HH, Birks HJB, Kaland PE, Moe D (eds) The Cultural Landscape – Past, Present and Future. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 255–266

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards KJ (1989) The cereal pollen record and early agriculture. In: Milles A, Williams D, Gardner N (eds) The Beginnings of Agriculture, International Series 496. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford, pp 113–135

    Google Scholar 

  • Erdtman G (1936) New methods in pollen analysis. Svensk Botanical Tidsskrift 30:154–164

    Google Scholar 

  • Fægri K, Iversen J (1989) Textbook of pollen analysis. Wiley, Chichester

    Google Scholar 

  • Gebauer AB, Price TD (1992) Foragers to farmers: an introduction. In: Gebauer AB, Price TD (eds) Transitions to Agriculture in Prehistory. Monographs in world Archaeology 4. Wisconsin, Madison, pp 1–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Greig J (1996) Great Britain – England. In: Berglund BE, Birks HJB, Ralska-Jasiewiczowa M, Wright HE (eds) Palaeoecological events during the last 15 000 years. Wiley, Chichester, pp 15–64

    Google Scholar 

  • Grimm E (1991) TILIA and TILIA. GRAPH. Illinois State Museum, Springfield

  • Haas JN (1996) Pollen and plant macrofossil evidence of vegetation change at Wallisellen-Langachermoos (Switzerland) during the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition 8500 to 6500 years ago. Dissertationes Botanicae 267. Cramer, Berlin Stuttgart

  • Hang T, Miidel A (1999) Holocene history of the lake. In: Miidel A, Raukas A (eds) Lake Peipsi Geology. Sulemees Publishers, Tallinn, pp 131–136

    Google Scholar 

  • Hang T, Miidel A, Kalm V, Kimmel K (2001) New data on the distribution and stratigraphy of the bottom deposits of Lake Peipsi, Eastern Estonia. Proceedings of the Estonian Academy of Sciences, Geology 50:233–253

    Google Scholar 

  • Hang T, Miidel A, Pirrus R (1995) Late Weichselian and Holocene water-level changes of Lake Peipsi, Eastern Estonia. PACT 50:121–131

    Google Scholar 

  • Heiri O, Lotter AF, Lemcke G (2001) Loss on ignition as a method for estimating organic and carbonate content in sediments: reproducibility and comparability of results. Journal of Paleolimnology 25:101–110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hicks S (1992) Pollen evidence for the activities of man in peripheral areas. University of Joensuu, Publications of Karelian Institute 102:21–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Ilomets M (1984) On the cyclic nature of the development of bogs. In: Punning J-M (ed) Estonia. Nature, Man, Economy. Academy of Sciences of Estonian SSR. Estonian Geographical Society, pp 68–77

  • Ilves E, Medne L (1979) The Holocene chronostratigraphy of the western Lubans Lowland (Latvian SSR). Proceedings of the Estonian Academy of Sciences, Geology 28:26–32 (in Russian with English summary)

    Google Scholar 

  • Innes BI, Blackford JJ, Davey PJ (2003) Dating the introduction of cereal cultivation to the British Isles: early palaeoecological evidence from the Isle of Man. Journal of Quaternary Science 18:603–613

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jaani A (2001) The annual water regime. In: Nõges T (ed) Lake Peipsi. Meteorology, Hydrology, Hydrochemistry. Sulemees Publishers, Tartu, pp 49–50

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaanits L (1959) Siedlungsplätze des Neolitikums und der Frühen Metallzeit im Mündungsgebiet des Emajõgi. Estonian Academy of Sciences, Institute of History. Tallinn (in Russian with German summary)

  • Jaanits L, Moora T (1999) Peipsimaast, selle kujunemis- ja asustusloost. (The history of population in the Peipsi area (Peipsiland)). In: Pihu E, Raukas A (eds) Peipsi. Keskkonnaministeeriumi info- ja tehnokeskus, Tallinn, pp 182–198

  • Jaanits L, Moora T, Rõuk A-M (1999) Ancient habitation and the impact of primitive society on nature. In: Miidel A, Raukas A (eds) Lake Peipsi Geology. Sulemees Publishers, Tallinn, pp 136–139

    Google Scholar 

  • Khotinsky NA (1993) Anthropogenic changes in the landscapes of the Russian Plain during the Holocene. Grana, Supplement 2:70–74

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kimmel K, Pirrus R, Raukas A (1999) Holocene deposits. In: Miidel A, Raukas A (eds) Lake Peipsi Geology. Sulemees Publishers, Tallinn, pp 42–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Kriiska A (2000) Corded Ware Culture Sites in North-Eastern Estonia. De temporibus antiquissimis ad honorem Lembit Jaanits. Muinasaja teadus 8:59–79

    Google Scholar 

  • Königsson L-K, Possnert G, Hammar T (1997) Economical and Cultural Changes in the Landscape Development at Novgorod. TOR 29:353–385

    Google Scholar 

  • Küster H (1988) Vom Werden einer Kulturlandschaft – Vegetationsgeschichtliche Studien am Auerberg (Südbayern). Acta humaniora 3:1–163

    Google Scholar 

  • Lang V (1999a) Early Farming in the Eastern Baltic region and Finland: Some Introductory Remarks. PACT 57:269–273

    Google Scholar 

  • Lang V (1999b) Pre-Christian History of Farming in the Eastern Baltic Region and Finland: A Synthesis. PACT 57:359–372

    Google Scholar 

  • Lang V, Kriiska A (2001) Eesti esiaja periodiseering ja kronoloogia. (Periods and chronology of Estonian Prehistory). Eesti Arheoloogia Ajakiri 5:83–109

    Google Scholar 

  • Levkovskaya GM (1987) Priroda i chelovek v srednem golocene Lubanskoj nizhiny (Environment and Prehistoric Man during the Middle Holocene in the Lubans Lowland). Zinatne, Riga (in Russian)

  • Moora T, Ilomets M, Jaanits L (1988) Muistsetest loodusoludest Akali kiviaja asulakoha lähiümbruses. (On ancient natural conditions in the vicinity of the Akali Neolithic settlement). In: Rõuk A-M, Selirand J (eds) Loodusteaduslikke meetodeid Eesti arheoloogias. Eesti NSV TA Ajaloo Instituut, Tallinn, pp 26–38

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore PD, Webb JA, Collinson ME (1991) Pollen analysis. Blackwell Scientific Publications, London

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Connell M (1987). Early cereal-type pollen records from Connemara, western Ireland and their possible significance. Pollen et Spores 29:207–224

    Google Scholar 

  • Poska A (2001) Human impact on Vegetation of Coastal Estonia during the Stone Age. Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis. Comprehensive Summaries of Uppsala Dissertations from the Faculty of Sciences and Technology, 652

  • Punning J-M, Liiva A, Ilves E (1968) Spisok radiouglerodnyh datirovok Instituta Zoologij i Botaniki III (List of radiocarbon dates of the Institute of Zoology and Botany). Eesti NSV Teaduste Akadeemia Toimetised, Bioloogia 4:116–125 (in Russian)

    Google Scholar 

  • Ralska-Jasiewiczowa M, Latałowa M (1996) Poland. In: Berglund BE, Birks HJB, Ralska-Jasiewiczowa M, Wright HE (eds) Palaeoecological events during the last 15 000 years. Regional synthesis of palaeoecological studies of lakes and mires in Europe. Wiley, Chichester, pp 403–472

    Google Scholar 

  • Rimantiene R (1999) Traces of Agricultural Activity in the Stone Age Settlements of Lithuania. PACT 57:275–290

    Google Scholar 

  • Rösch M (1990) Vegetationsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen im Durchenbergried. In: Siedlungsarchäologie im Alpenvorland II. Forschungen und Berichte zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte in Baden-Württemberg 37:9–64

  • Saarse L, Harrison SP (1992) Holocene lake-level changes in the eastern Baltic region. In: Punning J-M (ed) Estonia. Man and Nature. Estonian Geographical Society, Tallinn, pp 6–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Saarse L, Mäemets H, Pirrus R, Rõuk A-M, Sarv A, Ilves E (1996) Estonia. In: Berglund BE, Birks HJB, Ralska-Jasiewiczowa M, Wright HE (eds) Palaeoecological events during the last 15 000 years. Regional synthesis of palaeoecological studies of lakes and mires in Europe. Wiley, Chichester, pp 367–393

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarv A, Ilves E (1975) Über das Alter der holozänen Ablagerungen im Mündungsgebiet des Flusses Emajõgi (Saviku). Proceedings of Estonian Academy of Sciences. Chemistry, Geology 24:64–69 (in Russian with German summary)

    Google Scholar 

  • Seglinš V, Kalnina L, Lacis A (1999) The Lubans Plain, Latvia, as a Reference Area for Long Term Studies of Human Impact in the Environment. PACT 57:105–129

    Google Scholar 

  • Stančikaitė M (2000) Natural and human initiated environmental changes throughout the Late Glacial and Holocene in Lithuania territory. Doctoral dissertation, Physical sciences, Geology, Vilnius

  • Stuiver M, Reimer PJ, Braziunas TF (1998) High-precision radiocarbon age calibration for terrestrial and marine samples. Radiocarbon 40:1127–1151

    Google Scholar 

  • Vasks A, Kalnina L, Ritums R (1999) The Introduction and Pre-Christian History of Farming in Latvia. PACT 57:291–304

    Google Scholar 

  • Vassar A (1939) Iru Linnapära. Muistse Eesti linnused. 1936–1938.a. uurimise tulemused (Iru hillfort. The ancient Estonian strongholds. Results of excavation 1936–1938). Tartu, pp 53–100

  • Vuorela I, Lempiäinen T (1988) Archaeobotany of the site of the oldest grain find in Finland. Annales Botanici Fennici 25:33–45

    Google Scholar 

  • Vuorela I, Saarnisto M, Lempiäinen T, Taavitsainen J-P (2001) Stone Age to recent land-use history at Pegrema, northern Lake Onega, Russian Karelia. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 10:121–138

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zagorskis F (1963) Kreiči Neolithic dwelling (Kreiči Neolithic settlement). Latvijas PSP Zinatnu Akademijas Vestis 4:23–35 (in Latvian)

    Google Scholar 

  • Zernickaya WP, Šimakowa GI (2000) Ślady działalności prehistorycznego człowieka na obszarze Biełorusi (na podstawie badań palynologicznych). In: Problemy paleogeografii późnego plejstocenu I holocenu. Materiały białorusko-polskiego seminarium. Grodno, pp 82–83

  • Zvelebil M, Rowley-Conway P (1984) Transition to farming in northern Europe: a hunter-gatherer perspective. Norwegian Archaeological Review 17:104–128

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to late L.-K. Königsson, A. Karelson, A. Heinsalu, T. Moora and S. Veski for help during fieldwork, to referees and to S. Hicks for critical remarks and linguistic revision. The current study was supported financially by the Estonian Government (JDT 0332626s03) and the Estonian Science Foundation (grants 4963 and 5923)

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Geology at Tallinn University of Technology, Estonia pst. 7, Tallinn, 10143, Estonia

    Anneli Poska & Leili Saarse

Authors
  1. Anneli Poska
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Leili Saarse
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Leili Saarse.

Additional information

Editorial responsibility: Felix Bittmann

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Poska, A., Saarse, L. New evidence of possible crop introduction to north-eastern Europe during the Stone Age. Veget Hist Archaeobot 15, 169–179 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-005-0024-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-005-0024-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation