Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Efficiency of a Protected-Area Network in a Mediterranean Region: A Multispecies Assessment with Raptors

  • Published:
Environmental Management Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Three different systems of designating protected areas in a Mediterranean region in southeastern Spain were studied, referring to their effectiveness and efficiency for protecting both the breeding territories and the suitable habitat of a set of ten raptor species. Taking into consideration the varying degrees of endangerment of these species, a map of multispecies conservation values was also drawn up and superimposed on the three protected-area systems studied. In order to compare the levels of protection afforded by the three systems, we considered two indices that measured their relative effectiveness and efficiency. The effectiveness estimated the proportion of territories or optimal habitat protected by the networks while efficiency implicitly considered the area of each system (percentage of breeding territories or optimal habitat protected per 1% of land protected). Overall, our results showed that the most efficient system was that formed by the set of regional parks and reserves (17 protected breeding territories per 100 km2), although, given its small total area, it was by far the least effective (only protecting the 21% of the breeding territories of all species and 17% of the area of high conservation value). The systems formed by the Special Protection Areas (designated under the EU “Birds Directive”) and by the Special Conservation Areas (designated under the EU “Habitats Directive”) notably increased the percentages of protected territories of all species (61%) and area of high conservation value (57%), but their efficiency was not as high as expected in most cases. The overall level of protection was high for all species except for the Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni), an endangered falcon that inhabits pseudo-steppe and traditional agricultural habitats, which are clearly underrepresented in the protected-area network of the study region.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alcaraz-Segura D, Cabello J, Paruelo JM, Delibes M (2009) Use of descriptors of ecosystem functioning for monitoring a national park network: a remote sensing approach. Environmental Management 43:38–48

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen CR, Pearlstine LG, Kitchens WM (2001) Modeling viable mammal populations in Gap Analysis. Biological Conservation 99:135–144

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ando A, Camm J, Polasky S, Solow A (1998) Species distributions, land values, and efficient conservation. Science 279:2126–2128

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Araújo MB, Lobo JM, Moreno JC (2007) The effectiveness of Iberian Protected Areas in conserving terrestrial biodiversity. Conservation Biology 21:1423–1432

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balmford A, Bruner A, Cooper P, Costanza R, Farber S, Green RE, Jenkins M, Jefferiss P, Jessamy V, Madden J, Munro K, Myers N, Naeem S, Paavola J, Rayment M, Rosendo S, Roughgarden J, Trumper K, Turner RK (2002) Economic reasons for conserving wild nature. Science 297:950–953

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Balmford A, Gaston KJ, Blyth S, James A, Kapos V (2003) Global variation in terrestrial conservation costs, conservation benefits, and unmet conservation needs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100:1046–1050

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bennett G (2004) Integrating biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. Lessons learned from ecological network. World Conservation Union (UICN), Gland, Switzerland

  • BirdLife International (2004) Birds in the European Union: a status assessment. BirdLife International, Wageningen

  • Boitani L, Falcucci A, Maiorano L, Rondinini C (2007) Ecological networks as conceptual frameworks or operational tools in conservation. Conservation Biology 21:1414–1422

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boyce MS, Vernier PR, Nielsen SE, Schmiegelow FKA (2002) Evaluating resource selection functions. Ecological Modelling 157:281–300

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carrete M, Sánchez-Zapata JA, Calvo JF (2000) Breeding densities and habitat attributes of Golden Eagles in Southeastern Spain. Journal of Raptor Research 34:48–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Carrete M, Sánchez-Zapata JA, Martínez JE, Palazón JA, Calvo JF (2001) Distribución espacial del Águila-Azor Perdicera (Hieraaetus fasciatus) y del Águila Real (Aquila chrysaetos) en la Región de Murcia. Ardeola 48:175–182

    Google Scholar 

  • Ceballos G, Elrlich PR, Soberón J, Salazar I, Fay JP (2005) Global mammal conservation: what must we manage? Science 309:603–607

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chape S, Harrison J, Spalding M, Lysenko I (2005) Measuring the extent and effectiveness of protected areas as an indicator for meeting global biodiversity targets. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 360:443–455

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dimitrakopoulus P, Memtsas D, Troumbis A (2004) Questioning the effectiveness of the Natura 2000 Special Areas of Conservation strategy: the case of Crete. Global Ecology and Biogeography 13:199–207

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Estrada A, Real R, Vargas JM (2008) Using crisp and fuzzy modelling to identify favourability hotspots useful to perform gap analysis. Biodiversity and Conservation 17:857–871

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fattorini S (2006) A new method to identify important conservation areas applied to the butterflies of the Aegean Islands (Greece). Animal Conservation 9:75–83

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrier S (2002) Mapping spatial pattern in biodiversity for regional conservation planning: where to from here? Systematic Biology 51:331–363

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freitag S, Van Jaarsverkd AS, Biggs HC (1997) Ranking priority biodiversity areas: an iterative conservation value-based approach. Biological Conservation 82:263–272

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaston KJ, Charman K, Jackson SF, Armsworth PR, Bonn A, Briers RA, Callaghan C, Catchpole R, Hopkins J, Kunin WE, Latham J, Opdam P, Stoneman R, Stroud DA, Tratt R (2006) The ecological effectiveness of protected areas: the United Kingdom. Biological Conservation 132:76–87

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg CS, Waits LP (2009) Using habitat models to determine conservation priorities for pond-breeding amphibians in a privately-owned landscape of northern Idaho, USA. Biological Conservation 142:1096–1104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirzel AH, Le Lay G (2008) Habitat suitability modelling and niche theory. Journal of Applied Ecology 45:1372–1381

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirzel AH, Hausser J, Chessel D, Perrin N (2002) Ecological-niche factor analysis: how to compute habitat-suitability maps without absence data? Ecology 83:2027–2036

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirzel AH, Posse B, Oggier P-A, Crettenand Y, Glenz C, Arlettaz R (2004) Ecological requirements of reintroduced species and the implications for release policy: the case of the bearded vulture. Journal of Applied Ecology 41:1103–1116

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirzel AH, Le Lay G, Helfer V, Randin G, Guisan A (2006) Evaluating the ability of habitat suitability models to predict species presences. Ecological Modelling 199:142–152

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirzel AH, Hausser J, Perrin N (2008) Biomapper 4.0. Laboratory for Conservation Biology, University of Lausanne, Switzerland

    Google Scholar 

  • Jennings MD (2000) Gap analysis: concepts, methods, and recent results. Landscape Ecology 15:5–20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kapos V, Balmford A, Aveling R, Bubb P, Carey P, Entwistle A, Hopkins J, Mulliken T, Safford R, Stattersfield A, Walpole M, Manica A (2008) Calibrating conservation: new tools for measuring success. Conservation Letters 1:155–164

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kiester AR, Scott JM, Csuti B, Noss RF, Butterfield B, Sahr K, White D (1996) Conservation prioritization using GAP data. Conservation Biology 10:332–1342

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laiolo P, Tella JL (2006) Fate of unproductive and unattractive habitats: recent changes in Iberian steppes and their effects on endangered avifauna. Environmental Conservation 33:223–232

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maiorano L, Falcucci A, Boitani L (2006) Gap analysis of terrestrial vertebrates in Italy: priorities for conservation planning in a human dominated landscape. Biological Conservation 133:455–473

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maiorano L, Falcucci A, Boitani L (2007) Contribution of the Natura 2000 network to biodiversity conservation in Italy. Conservation Biology 21:1433–1444

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maiorano L, Falcucci A, Boitani L (2008) Size-dependent resistance of protected areas to land-use change. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 275:1297–1304

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Margules CR, Pressey RL (2000) Systematic conservation planning. Nature 405:243–253

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martínez JE, Calvo JF (2006) Rapaces diurnas y nocturnas de la Región de Murcia. Consejería de Medio Ambiente y Ordenación del Territorio, Murcia, p 141

    Google Scholar 

  • Martínez I, Carreño F, Escudero A, Rubio A (2006) Are threatened lichen species well-protected in Spain? Effectiveness of a protected areas network. Biological Conservation 133:500–511

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martínez JE, Pagán I, Palazón JA, Calvo JF (2007) Habitat use of booted eagles (Hieraaetus pennatus) in a Special Protection Area: implications for conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation 16:3481–3488

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martínez JE, Martínez JA, Zuberogoitia I, Zabala J, Redpath SM, Calvo JF (2008) The effect of intra- and interspecific interactions in the large-scale distribution of cliff-nesting raptors. Ornis Fennica 85:13–21

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore J, Balmford A, Allnutt T, Burgess N (2004) Integrating costs into conservation planning across Africa. Biological Conservation 117:343–350

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Myers N, Mittermeler RA, Mittermeler CG, da Fonseca GAB, Kent J (2000) Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403:853–858

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naidoo R, Adamowicz WL (2006) Modeling opportunity costs of conservation in transitional landscapes. Conservation Biology 20:490–500

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neteler M, Mitasova H (2008) Open source GIS: A GRASS GIS approach. 3rd edn. Springer, New York

  • Nicholson E, Possingham HP (2006) Objectives for multiple-species conservation planing. Conservation Biology 20:871–881

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nicholson E, Westphal MI, Frank K, Rochester WA, Pressey RL, Lindenmayer DB, Possingham HP (2006) A new method for conservation planning for the persistence of multiple species. Ecology Letters 9:1049–1060

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pearlstine LG, Smith SE, Brandt LA, Allen CR, Kitchens WM, Stenberg J (2002) Assessing state-wide biodiversity in the Florida Gap Analysis project. Journal of Environmental Management 66:127–144

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Primack RB (2008) A Primer of conservation biology, 4th edn. Sinauer, Sunderland

  • Puddu G, Maiorano L, Falcucci A, Corsi F, Boitani L (2009) Spatial-explicit assessment of current and future conservation options for the endangered Corsican Red Deer (Cervus elaphus corsicanus) in Sardinia. Biodiversity and Conservation 18:2001–2016

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rey Benayas JM, de la Montaña E (2003) Identifying areas of high-value vertebrate diversity for strengthening conservation. Biological Conservation 114:357–370

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robledano F (2007) Espacios Naturales Protegidos. In: Romero A, Alonso F, Vicente M (eds) Atlas Global de la Región de Murcia. La Verdad–CMM S.A. Murcia, Spain, pp 286–293

    Google Scholar 

  • Robledano F, Calvo JF, Hernández V, Aledo E (2006) Libro Rojo de los Vertebrados de la Región de Murcia. Consejería de Industria y Medio Ambiente, Murcia

  • Rodrigues AS, Andelman SJ, Bakarr MI, Boitani L, Brooks TM, Cowling RM, Fishpool LD, da Fonseca GA, Gaston KJ, Hoffmann M, Long JS, Marquet PA, Pilgrim JD, Pressey RL, Schipper J, Sechrest W, Stuart SN, Underhill LG, Waller RW, Watts M, Yan X (2004) Effectiveness of the global protected area network in representing species diversity. Nature 428:640–643

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Root KV, Akçakaya HR, Ginzburg L (2003) A multispecies approach to ecological valuation and conservation. Conservation Biology 17:196–206

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sánchez-Zapata JA, Calvo JF (1999) Raptor distribution in relation to landscape composition in semi-arid Mediterranean habitats. Journal of Applied Ecology 36:254–262

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Santos X, Brito JC, Sillero N, Pleguezuelos JM, Llorente GA, Fahd S, Parellada X (2006) Inferring habitat-suitability areas with ecological modelling techniques and GIS: a contribution to assess the conservation status of Vipera latastei. Biological Conservation 130:416–425

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sattler T, Bontadina F, Hirzel AH, Arlettaz R (2007) Ecological niche modelling of two cryptic bat species calls for a reassessment of their conservation status. Journal of Applied Ecology 44:1188–1199

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sergio F, Newton I, Marchesi L, Pedrini P (2006) Ecologically justified charisma: preservation of top predators delivers biodiversity conservation. Journal of Applied Ecology 43:1049–1055

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sokal RR, Rohlf FJ (1995) Biometry: The principles and practice of statistics in biological research, 3rd edn. W. H. Freeman and Co., New York

  • Sutherland WJ (2005) How can we make conservation more effective? Oryx 39:1–2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland WJ, Pullin AS, Dolman PM, Knigt TM (2004) The need for evidence-based conservation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19:305–308

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tella JL, Forero MG, Hiraldo F, Donázar JA (1998) Conflicts between Lesser Kestrel conservation and European agricultural policies as identified by habitat use analyses. Conservation Biology 12:593–604

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We are most grateful to Iluminada Pagán, Mario León, Pencho Sánchez, Carlos González, Emilio Aledo and other colleagues who provided invaluable information on breeding territories and helped with field censuses. Three anonymous reviewers provided helpful and constructive comments on an earlier version of the manuscript. We are also indebted to Paqui Carreño for her help with GIS analyses.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Departamento de Ecología e Hidrología, Universidad de Murcia, Campus de Espinardo, 30100, Murcia, Spain

    María D. Abellán, José E. Martínez, José A. Palazón, Miguel Á. Esteve & José F. Calvo

Authors
  1. María D. Abellán
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. José E. Martínez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. José A. Palazón
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Miguel Á. Esteve
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. José F. Calvo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to José F. Calvo.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Abellán, M.D., Martínez, J.E., Palazón, J.A. et al. Efficiency of a Protected-Area Network in a Mediterranean Region: A Multispecies Assessment with Raptors. Environmental Management 47, 983–991 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-011-9640-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-011-9640-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation