Abstract
Taxol (a trademarked product of Bristol-Myers Squibb) is a complex isoprenoid natural product which has displayed potent anticancer activity. Originally isolated from the Pacific yew tree (Taxus brevifolia), Taxol has been mass-produced through processes reliant on plant-derived biosynthesis. Recently, there have been alternative efforts to reconstitute the biosynthetic process through technically convenient microbial hosts, which offer unmatched growth kinetics and engineering potential. Such an approach is made challenging by the need to successfully introduce the significantly foreign enzymatic steps responsible for eventual biosynthesis. Doing so, however, offers the potential to engineer more efficient and economical production processes and the opportunity to design and produce tailored analog compounds with enhanced properties. This mini review will specifically focus on heterologous biosynthesis as it applies to Taxol with an emphasis on the challenges associated with introducing and reconstituting the downstream reaction steps needed for final bioactivity.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ajikumar PK, Tyo K, Carlsen S, Mucha O, Phon TH, Stephanopoulos G (2008) Terpenoids: opportunities for biosynthesis of natural product drugs using engineered microorganisms. Mol Pharm 5:167–190
Ajikumar PK, Xiao WH, Tyo KE, Wang Y, Simeon F, Leonard E, Mucha O, Phon TH, Pfeifer B, Stephanopoulos G (2010) Isoprenoid pathway optimization for Taxol precursor overproduction in Escherichia coli. Science 330:70–74
Amann RI, Ludwig W, Schleifer KH (1995) Phylogenetic identification and in situ detection of individual microbial cells without cultivation. Microbiol Rev 59:143–169
Barnes HJ (1996) Maximizing expression of eukaryotic cytochrome P450s in Escherichia coli. Methods Enzymol 272:3–14
Barnes HJ, Arlotto MP, Waterman MR (1991) Expression and enzymatic activity of recombinant cytochrome P450 17 alpha-hydroxylase in Escherichia coli. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88:5597–5601
Bernhardt R (2006) Cytochromes P450 as versatile biocatalysts. J Biotechnol 124:128–145
Bloch K (1992) Sterol molecule: structure, biosynthesis, and function. Steroids 57:378–383
Chang MC, Eachus RA, Trieu W, Ro DK, Keasling JD (2007) Engineering Escherichia coli for production of functionalized terpenoids using plant P450s. Nat Chem Biol 3:274–277
Chau M, Croteau R (2004) Molecular cloning and characterization of a cytochrome P450 taxoid 2alpha-hydroxylase involved in Taxol biosynthesis. Arch Biochem Biophys 427:48–57
Chau M, Jennewein S, Walker K, Croteau R (2004) Taxol biosynthesis: molecular cloning and characterization of a cytochrome P450 taxoid 7 beta-hydroxylase. Chem Biol 11:663–672
Croteau R, Ketchum RE, Long RM, Kaspera R, Wildung MR (2006) Taxol biosynthesis and molecular genetics. Phytochem Rev Proc Phytochem Soc Eur 5:75–97
Dejong JM, Liu Y, Bollon AP, Long RM, Jennewein S, Williams D, Croteau RB (2006) Genetic engineering of taxol biosynthetic genes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Biotechnol Bioeng 93:212–224
Engels B, Dahm P, Jennewein S (2008) Metabolic engineering of taxadiene biosynthesis in yeast as a first step towards Taxol (Paclitaxel) production. Metab Eng 10:201–206
Fisher CW, Shet MS, Caudle DL, Martin-Wixtrom CA, Estabrook RW (1992) High-level expression in Escherichia coli of enzymatically active fusion proteins containing the domains of mammalian cytochromes P450 and NADPH-P450 reductase flavoprotein. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89:10817–10821
Fisher CW, Shet MS, Estabrook RW (1996) Construction of plasmids and expression in Escherichia coli of enzymatically active fusion proteins containing the heme-domain of a P450 linked to NADPH-P450 reductase. Methods Enzymol 272:15–25
Grawert T, Groll M, Rohdich F, Bacher A, Eisenreich W (2011) Biochemistry of the non-mevalonate isoprenoid pathway. Cell Mol Life Sci 68(23):3797–3814
Grogan G (2011) Cytochromes P450: exploiting diversity and enabling application as biocatalysts. Curr Opin Chem Biol 15:241–248
Hefner J, Rubenstein SM, Ketchum RE, Gibson DM, Williams RM, Croteau R (1996) Cytochrome P450-catalyzed hydroxylation of taxa-4(5),11(12)-diene to taxa-4(20),11(12)-dien-5alpha-ol: the first oxygenation step in taxol biosynthesis. Chem Biol 3:479–489
Hefner J, Ketchum RE, Croteau R (1998) Cloning and functional expression of a cDNA encoding geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase from Taxus canadensis and assessment of the role of this prenyltransferase in cells induced for taxol production. Arch Biochem Biophys 360:62–74
Hennenfent KL, Govindan R (2006) Novel formulations of taxanes: a review. Old wine in a new bottle? Ann Oncol 17:735–749
Hezari M, Lewis NG, Croteau R (1995) Purification and characterization of taxa-4(5),11(12)-diene synthase from Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) that catalyzes the first committed step of taxol biosynthesis. Arch Biochem Biophys 322:437–444
Huang KX, Huang QL, Wildung MR, Croteau R, Scott AI (1998) Overproduction, in Escherichia coli, of soluble taxadiene synthase, a key enzyme in the Taxol biosynthetic pathway. Protein Expr Purif 13:90–96
Huang Q, Roessner CA, Croteau R, Scott AI (2001) Engineering Escherichia coli for the synthesis of taxadiene, a key intermediate in the biosynthesis of taxol. Bioorg Med Chem 9:2237–2242
Jenkins CM, Waterman MR (1998) NADPH-flavodoxin reductase and flavodoxin from Escherichia coli: characteristics as a soluble microsomal P450 reductase. Biochemistry 37:6106–6113
Jenkins CM, Pikuleva I, Waterman MR (1998) Expression of eukaryotic cytochromes P450 in E. coli. Methods Mol Biol 107:181–193
Jennewein S, Rithner CD, Williams RM, Croteau RB (2001) Taxol biosynthesis: taxane 13 alpha-hydroxylase is a cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:13595–13600
Jennewein S, Rithner CD, Williams RM, Croteau R (2003) Taxoid metabolism: taxoid 14beta-hydroxylase is a cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenase. Arch Biochem Biophys 413:262–270
Jennewein S, Long RM, Williams RM, Croteau R (2004a) Cytochrome p450 taxadiene 5alpha-hydroxylase, a mechanistically unusual monooxygenase catalyzing the first oxygenation step of taxol biosynthesis. Chem Biol 11:379–387
Jennewein S, Wildung MR, Chau M, Walker K, Croteau R (2004b) Random sequencing of an induced Taxus cell cDNA library for identification of clones involved in Taxol biosynthesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101:9149–9154
Jennewein S, Park H, DeJong JM, Long RM, Bollon AP, Croteau RB (2005) Coexpression in yeast of Taxus cytochrome P450 reductase with cytochrome P450 oxygenases involved in Taxol biosynthesis. Biotechnol Bioeng 89:588–598
Kaspera R, Croteau R (2006) Cytochrome P450 oxygenases of Taxol biosynthesis. Phytochem Rev 5:433–444
Katz L (1997) Manipulation of modular polyketide synthases. Chem Rev 97:2557–2576
Koepp AE, Hezari M, Zajicek J, Vogel BS, LaFever RE, Lewis NG, Croteau R (1995) Cyclization of geranylgeranyl diphosphate to taxa-4(5),11(12)-diene is the committed step of taxol biosynthesis in Pacific yew. J Biol Chem 270:8686–8690
Leonard E, Yan Y, Koffas MA (2006) Functional expression of a P450 flavonoid hydroxylase for the biosynthesis of plant-specific hydroxylated flavonols in Escherichia coli. Metab Eng 8:172–181
Long RM, Croteau R (2005) Preliminary assessment of the C13-side chain 2′-hydroxylase involved in taxol biosynthesis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 338:410–417
Long BH, Carboni JM, Wasserman AJ, Cornell LA, Casazza AM, Jensen PR, Lindel T, Fenical W, Fairchild CR (1998) Eleutherobin, a novel cytotoxic agent that induces tubulin polymerization, is similar to paclitaxel (Taxol). Cancer Res 58:1111–1115
Maplestone RA, Stone MJ, Williams DH (1992) The evolutionary role of secondary metabolites—a review. Gene 115:151–157
Martin VJ, Pitera DJ, Withers ST, Newman JD, Keasling JD (2003) Engineering a mevalonate pathway in Escherichia coli for production of terpenoids. Nat Biotechnol 21:796–802
McGarvey DJ, Croteau R (1995) Terpenoid metabolism. Plant Cell 7:1015–1026
Miziorko HM (2011) Enzymes of the mevalonate pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis. Arch Biochem Biophys 505:131–143
Munro AW, Leys DG, McLean KJ, Marshall KR, Ost TW, Daff S, Miles CS, Chapman SK, Lysek DA, Moser CC, Page CC, Dutton PL (2002) P450 BM3: the very model of a modern flavocytochrome. Trends Biochem Sci 27:250–257
Narhi LO, Fulco AJ (1982) Phenobarbital induction of a soluble cytochrome P-450-dependent fatty acid monooxygenase in Bacillus megaterium. J Biol Chem 257:2147–2150
Newman DJ, Cragg GM (2007) Natural products as sources of new drugs over the last 25 years. J Nat Prod 70:461–477
Oeda K, Sakaki T, Ohkawa H (1985) Expression of rat liver cytochrome P-450MC cDNA in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. DNA 4:203–210
Olano C, Mendez C, Salas JA (2010) Post-PKS tailoring steps in natural product-producing actinomycetes from the perspective of combinatorial biosynthesis. Nat Prod Rep 27:571–616
Pritchard MP, McLaughlin L, Friedberg T (2006) Establishment of functional human cytochrome P450 monooxygenase systems in Escherichia coli. Methods Mol Biol 320:19–29
Ro DK, Paradise EM, Ouellet M, Fisher KJ, Newman KL, Ndungu JM, Ho KA, Eachus RA, Ham TS, Kirby J, Chang MC, Withers ST, Shiba Y, Sarpong R, Keasling JD (2006) Production of the antimalarial drug precursor artemisinic acid in engineered yeast. Nature 440:940–943
Rohmer M (1999) The discovery of a mevalonate-independent pathway for isoprenoid biosynthesis in bacteria, algae and higher plants. Nat Prod Rep 16:565–574
Sacchettini JC, Poulter CD (1997) Creating isoprenoid diversity. Science 277:1788–1789
Schoendorf A, Rithner CD, Williams RM, Croteau RB (2001) Molecular cloning of a cytochrome P450 taxane 10 beta-hydroxylase cDNA from Taxus and functional expression in yeast. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:1501–1506
Tsuruta H, Paddon CJ, Eng D, Lenihan JR, Horning T, Anthony LC, Regentin R, Keasling JD, Renninger NS, Newman JD (2009) High-level production of amorpha-4,11-diene, a precursor of the antimalarial agent artemisinin, in Escherichia coli. PLoS One 4:e4489
Urlacher VB, Girhard M (2011) Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases: an update on perspectives for synthetic application. Trends in Biotechnology 30:26–36
Walker K, Croteau R (2000a) Molecular cloning of a 10-deacetylbaccatin III-10-O-acetyl transferase cDNA from Taxus and functional expression in Escherichia coli. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:583–587
Walker K, Croteau R (2000b) Taxol biosynthesis: molecular cloning of a benzoyl-CoA:taxane 2alpha-O-benzoyltransferase cDNA from Taxus and functional expression in Escherichia coli. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:13591–13596
Walker K, Ketchum RE, Hezari M, Gatfield D, Goleniowski M, Barthol A, Croteau R (1999) Partial purification and characterization of acetyl coenzyme A: taxa-4(20),11(12)-dien-5alpha-ol O-acetyl transferase that catalyzes the first acylation step of taxol biosynthesis. Arch Biochem Biophys 364:273–279
Walker K, Schoendorf A, Croteau R (2000) Molecular cloning of a taxa-4(20),11(12)-dien-5alpha-ol-O-acetyl transferase cDNA from Taxus and functional expression in Escherichia coli. Arch Biochem Biophys 374:371–380
Walker K, Fujisaki S, Long R, Croteau R (2002a) Molecular cloning and heterologous expression of the C-13 phenylpropanoid side chain-CoA acyltransferase that functions in Taxol biosynthesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:12715–12720
Walker K, Long R, Croteau R (2002b) The final acylation step in taxol biosynthesis: cloning of the taxoid C13-side-chain N-benzoyltransferase from Taxus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:9166–9171
Walker KD, Klettke K, Akiyama T, Croteau R (2004) Cloning, heterologous expression, and characterization of a phenylalanine aminomutase involved in Taxol biosynthesis. J Biol Chem 279:53947–53954
Walsh CT, Chen H, Keating TA, Hubbard BK, Losey HC, Luo L, Marshall CG, Miller DA, Patel HM (2001) Tailoring enzymes that modify nonribosomal peptides during and after chain elongation on NRPS assembly lines. Curr Opin Chem Biol 5:525–534
Watanabe K, Hotta K, Praseuth AP, Koketsu K, Migita A, Boddy CN, Wang CC, Oguri H, Oikawa H (2006) Total biosynthesis of antitumor nonribosomal peptides in Escherichia coli. Nat Chem Biol 2:423–428
Wildung MR, Croteau R (1996) A cDNA clone for taxadiene synthase, the diterpene cyclase that catalyzes the committed step of taxol biosynthesis. J Biol Chem 271:9201–9204
Williams DC, Wildung MR, Jin AQ, Dalal D, Oliver JS, Coates RM, Croteau R (2000) Heterologous expression and characterization of a “Pseudomature” form of taxadiene synthase involved in paclitaxel (Taxol) biosynthesis and evaluation of a potential intermediate and inhibitors of the multistep diterpene cyclization reaction. Arch Biochem Biophys 379:137–146
Woo DD, Miao SY, Pelayo JC, Woolf AS (1994) Taxol inhibits progression of congenital polycystic kidney disease. Nature 368:750–753
Young DH, Michelotti EL, Swindell CS, Krauss NE (1992) Antifungal properties of taxol and various analogues. Experientia 48:882–885
Yun CH, Yim SK, Kim DH, Ahn T (2006) Functional expression of human cytochrome P450 enzymes in Escherichia coli. Curr Drug Metab 7:411–429
Zhang B, Maiti A, Shively S, Lakhani F, McDonald-Jones G, Bruce J, Lee EB, Xie SX, Joyce S, Li C, Toleikis PM, Lee VM, Trojanowski JQ (2005) Microtubule-binding drugs offset tau sequestration by stabilizing microtubules and reversing fast axonal transport deficits in a tauopathy model. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102:227–231
Zhang H, Wang Y, Wu J, Skalina K, Pfeifer BA (2010) Complete biosynthesis of erythromycin A and designed analogs using E. coli as a heterologous host. Chem Biol 17:1232–1240
Zhang H, Boghigian BA, Armando J, Pfeifer BA (2011a) Methods and options for the heterologous production of complex natural products. Nat Prod Rep 28:125–151
Zhang H, Skalina K, Jiang M, Pfeifer BA (2011b) Improved E. coli erythromycin a production through the application of metabolic and bioprocess engineering. Biotechnology Progress 28:292–296
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Milheim Foundation (2006–17) and the National Institutes of Health (GM085323) for support towards projects related to heterologous Taxol biosynthesis.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jiang, M., Stephanopoulos, G. & Pfeifer, B.A. Downstream reactions and engineering in the microbially reconstituted pathway for Taxol. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 94, 841–849 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-012-4016-1
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-012-4016-1