Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Occurrence of Selected Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers and 2,2′,4,4′,5,5′-Hexabromobiphenyl (BB-153) in Sewage Sludge and Effluent Samples of a Wastewater-Treatment Plant in Cape Town, South Africa

  • Published:
Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The reuse of treated effluent from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) as alternative water source for sport-field or landscape irrigation, agricultural, and other industrial purposes is growing significantly. Similarly, the application of treated sludge (biosolid) to agricultural soils is now being considered globally as the most economic means of sludge disposal. However, the presence of emerging organic contaminants in these matrices, including polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), which are potential endocrine disruptors, portends a high health risk to humans and the environment in general. In this study, effluent and sewage sludge samples collected from a WWTP were analysed for some selected PBDE congeners (BDE congeners 28, 47, 99 100 153 154 183, and 209) as well as BB-153 using a high-capillary gas chromatograph equipped with an electron capture detector. The sum of the eight PBDE congeners ranged from 369 to 4370, 19.2 to 2640, and 90.4 to 15,100 ng/l for raw water, secondary effluent, and final effluent, respectively. A similar result was observed for sewage sludge samples, which ranged between 13.1 and 652 ng/g dry weight (dw). The results obtained for BB-153 were generally lower compared with those found for most PBDE congeners. These ranged from ND to 18.4 ng/l and ND to 9.97 ng/g dw for effluents and sewage sludge, respectively. In both matrices, BDE 47 and 209 congeners were found to contribute significantly to the overall sum of PBDEs. The reuse of the treated effluent, particularly for agricultural purposes, could enhance the possibility of these contaminants entering into the food chain, thus causing undesirable health problems in exposed subjects.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adewumi JR, Ilemobade AA, van Zyl JE (2010) Treated wastewater re-use in South Africa: overview, potential and challenges. Resour Conserv Recycl 55:221–231

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Asante KA, Sudaryanto A, Devanathan G, Bello M, Takahashi S, Isobe T et al (2010) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polychlorinated biphenyls in cow milk samples from Ghana. Interdisciplinary Studies on Environmental Chemistry―Environmental Specimen Bank, Ghana

  • City of Cape Town (2007) Treated effluent re-uses strategy and master planning within the City of Cape Town. BVi Consulting Engineers. BVi Report No. C1500/1.1

  • Clarke B, Porter N, Symons R, Marriott P, Ades P, Stevenson G et al (2008) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polybrominated biphenyls in Australian sewage sludge. Chemosphere 73:980–989

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke BO, Porter NA, Symons RK, Marriot PJ, Stevenson GJ, Blackbeard JR (2010) Investigating the distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers through an Australian wastewater treatment plant. Sci Total Environ 408:1604–1611

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Daso AP, Fatoki OS, Odendaal JP, Okonkwo JO (2010) A review on sources of brominated flame retardants and routes of human exposure with emphasis on polybrominated diphenyl ethers. Environ Rev 18:239–254

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Daso AP, Fatoki OS, Odendaal JP (2011) Development of analytical procedures for the simultaneous determination of tri- to heptabrominated diphenyl ethers and hexabrominated biphenyl (BB 153) in sediment samples. Water SA 37(3):331–338

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • de Boer J, Wester PG, vander Horst A, Leonards PEG (2003) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in influents, suspended particulate matter, sediment, sewage treatment plants and effluents and biota from the Netherlands. Environ Pollut 122:63–74

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • de Wit CA (2002) An overview of brominated flame retardants in the environment. Chemosphere 46:583–624

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deng D, Guo J, Sun G, Chen X, Qui M, Xu M (2011) Aerobic debromination of deca-BDE: isolation and characterization of an indigenous isolate from a PBDE contaminated sediment. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 65:465–469

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fabrellas B, Larrazabal D, Martinez MA, Eljarrat E, Barcelo D (2004) Presence of brominated diphenyl ethers in Spanish sewage sludges: important contribution of deca-BDE. Organohalogen Compd 66:3755–3760

    Google Scholar 

  • Gevao B, Muzaini S, Helaleh M (2008) Occurrence and concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in sewage sludge from wastewater treatment plants in Kuwait. Chemosphere 71:242–247

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gomara B, Herrero L, Gonzalez MJ (2006) Survey of polybrominated diphenyl ether levels in Spanish commercial foodstuffs. Environ Sci Technol 40:7541–7547

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hale RC, La Guardia MJ (2002) Have risks associated with the presence of synthetic organic contaminants in land-applied sewage sludges been adequately assessed? New Solut 12(4):371–386

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hale RC, La Guardia MJ, Harvey EP, Gaylor MO, Mainor TM, Duff WH (2001) Flame retardants: persistent pollutants in land-applied sludges. Nature 412:140–141

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hardy ML (2002) The toxicology of the three commercial polybrominated diphenyl oxide (ether) flame retardants. Chemosphere 46:757–777

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huang H, Zhang S, Christe P (2011) Plant uptake and dissipation of PBDEs in the soils of electronic waste recycling sites. Environ Pollut 159:238–243

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kiviranta H, Ovaskainen M, Vartiainen T (2004) Market basket study on dietary intake of PCDD/Fs, PCBs, and PBDEs in Finland. Environ Int 30:923–932

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Knoth W, Mann W, Meyer R, Nebhuth J (2007) Polybrominated diphenyl ether in sewage sludge in Germany. Chemosphere 67:1831–1837

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kupper T, Felippe de Alencastro L, Gatsigazi R, Furrer R, Grandjean D, Tarradellas J (2008) Concentrations and specific loads of brominated flame retardants in sewage sludge. Chemosphere 71:1173–1180

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kuriyama SN, Talsness CE, Grote K, Chahoud I (2005) Developmental exposure to low dose PBDE 99 I. Effects on male fertility and neurobehavior in rat offspring. Environ Health Perspect 113:149–154

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Laturnus F, von Arnold K, Gron C (2007) Organic contaminants from sewage sludge applied to agricultural soils―false alarm regarding possible problems for food safety? Environ Sci Pollut Res 14(1):53–60

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McDonald TA (2002) A perspective on the potential health risks of PBDEs. Chemosphere 46:745–755

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meng X, Zeng EY, Yu L, Guo Y, Mai B (2007) Assessment of human exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers in china via fish consumption and inhalation. Environ Sci Technol 41(14):4882–4887

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moon H-B, Kannan K, Lee S-J, Choi M (2007) Atmospheric deposition of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in coastal areas in Korea. Chemosphere 66:585–593

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mueller KE, Mueller-Spitz SR, Henry HF, Vonderheide AP, Soman RS, Kinkle BK et al (2006) Fate of pentabrominated diphenyl ethers in soil: abiotic sorption, plant uptake, and the impact of interspecific plant interactions. Environ Sci Technol 40:6662–6667

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • North KD (2004) Tracking polybrominated diphenyl ether releases in a wastewater treatment plant effluent, Palo Alto, California. Environ Sci Technol 38:4484–4488

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oberg K, Warman K, Oberg T (2002) Distribution and levels of brominated flame retardants in sewage sludge. Chemosphere 48:805–809

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Odusanya DO, Okonkwo JO, Botha B (2009) Polybrominated diphenyls in leachates from selected landfill sites in South Africa. Waste Manag 29(1):96–102

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peng X, Tang C, Yu Y, Tan J, Huang Q, Wu J et al (2009) Concentrations, transport, fate, and releases of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in sewage treatment plants in the Pearl River Delta, South China. Environ Int 35:303–309

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Polder A, Venter B, Skaare JU, Bouwman H (2008) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers and HBCD in bird eggs of South Africa. Chemosphere 73:48–154

    Google Scholar 

  • Rahman F, Langford KH, Scrimshaw MD, Lester JN (2001) Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants. Sci Total Environ 275:1–17

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rayne S, Ikonomou MG (2005) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in an advanced wastewater treatment plant. 1: concentrations, patterns, and influence of treatment processes. J Environ Eng Sci 4:353–367

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw SD, Kannan K (2009) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in marine ecosystems of the American continents: foresight from current knowledge. Rev Environ Health 24(3):157–229

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shin M, Duncan B, Seto P, Falleta P, Lee D-Y (2010) Dynamics of selected pre-existing polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in municipal wastewater sludge under anaerobic conditions. Chemosphere 78:1220–1224

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Song M, Chu S, Letcher RJ, Seth B (2006) Fate, partitioning, and mass loading of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) during the treatment processing of municipal sewage. Environ Sci Technol 40:6241–6246

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stapleton H, Dodder NG (2008) Photodegradation of decabromodiphenylether in house dust by natural sunlight. Environ Toxicol Chem 27(2):306–312

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tittlemier SA, Halldorson T, Stern GA, Tomy GT (2002) Vapour pressure, aqueous solubilities, and Henry’s law constants of some brominated flame retardants. Environ Toxicol Chem 21(9):1804–1810

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Visvanathan C, Ben AR, Parameshwaran K (2000) Membrane separation bioreactors for wastewater treatment. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 30(1):1–48

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vogelsang C, Grung M, Jantsch TG, Tollefsen KE, Liltved H (2006) Occurrence and removal of selected organic micropollutants at mechanical, chemical and advanced wastewater treatment plants in Norway. Water Res 40(19):3559–3570

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Voorspoels S, Covaci A, Neels H, Schepens P (2007) Dietary PBDE intake: a market-basket study in Belgium. Environ Int 33:93–97

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vrkoslavova J, Demnerova K, Mackova M, Zemanova T, Macek T, Hajslova J et al (2010) Absorption and translocation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) by plants from contaminated sewage sludge. Chemosphere 81:381–386

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang Y, Zhang Q, Lv J, Li A, Liu H, Li G, Jiang G (2007) Polybrominated diphenyl ether in sewage sludge of wastewater treatment plants in China. Chemosphere 68(9):1683–1691

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wania F, Dugani CB (2003) Assessing the long-range transport potential of polybrominated diphenyl ethers: a comparison of four multimedia models. Environ Toxicol Chem 22(6):1252–1261

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yun SH, Addink R, McCabe JM, Ostaszewski A, Mackenzie-Taylor D, Taylor AD et al (2008) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polybrominated biphenyls in sediment and floodplain soils of the Saginaw River watershed, Michigan, USA. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 55:1–10

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the South African National Research Foundation for financial support and the allocation of a grant-holder linked Doctor of Technology bursary to A. P. Daso. We also thank the Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, South Africa for providing logistics and laboratory facilities.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Environmental and Occupational Studies, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, South Africa

    Adegbenro P. Daso, James P. Odendaal & Olanrewaju O. Olujimi

  2. Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, South Africa

    Olalekan S. Fatoki

Authors
  1. Adegbenro P. Daso
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Olalekan S. Fatoki
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. James P. Odendaal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Olanrewaju O. Olujimi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Adegbenro P. Daso.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Daso, A.P., Fatoki, O.S., Odendaal, J.P. et al. Occurrence of Selected Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers and 2,2′,4,4′,5,5′-Hexabromobiphenyl (BB-153) in Sewage Sludge and Effluent Samples of a Wastewater-Treatment Plant in Cape Town, South Africa. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 62, 391–402 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-011-9720-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-011-9720-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation