Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Fastloc-GPS reveals daytime departure and arrival during long-distance migration and the use of different resting strategies in sea turtles

  • Original paper
  • Published:
Marine Biology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Determining the time of day that animals initiate and end migration, as well as variation in diel movement patterns during migration, provides insights into the types of strategy used to maximise energy efficiency and ensure successful completion of migration. However, obtaining this level of detail has been difficult for long-distance migratory marine species. Thus, we investigated whether the large volume of highly accurate locations obtained by Argos-linked Fastloc-GPS transmitters could be used to identify the time of day that adult green (n = 8 turtles, 9487 locations) and loggerhead (n = 46 turtles, 47,588 locations) sea turtles initiate and end migration, along with potential resting strategies during migration. We found that departure from and arrival at breeding, stopover and foraging sites consistently occurred during the daytime, which is consistent with previous findings suggesting that turtles might use solar visual cues for orientation. Only seven turtles made stopovers (of up to 6 days and all located close to the start or end of migration) during migration, possibly to rest and/or refuel; however, observations of day versus night speed of travel indicated that turtles might use other mechanisms to rest. For instance, turtles travelled 31% slower at night compared to day during their oceanic crossings. Furthermore, within the first 24 h of entering waters shallower than 100 m towards the end of migration, some individuals travelled 72% slower at night, repeating this behaviour intermittently (each time for a one-night duration at 3–6 day intervals) until reaching the foraging grounds. Thus, access to data-rich, highly accurate Argos-linked Fastloc-GPS provided information about differences in day versus night activity at different stages in migration, allowing us, for the first time, to compare the strategies used by a marine vertebrate with terrestrial land-based and flying species.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Modified from Schofield et al. (2013a, b) and Hays et al. (2014b)

Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Åkesson S, Hedenström A (2007) How migrants get there: migratory performance and orientation. Bioscience 57:123–133

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Åkesson S, Alerstam T, Hedenström A (1996) Flight initiation of nocturnal passerine migrants in relation to celestial orientation conditions at twilight. J Avian Biol 27:95–102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Åkesson S, Broderick AC, Glen F et al (2003) Navigation by green turtles: which strategy do displaced adults use to find Ascension Island? Oikos 103:363–372

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alerstam T (2009) Flight by night or day? Optimal daily timing of bird migration. J Theor Biol 258:530–536

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alerstam T, Hedenström A, Åkesson S (2003) Long-distance migration: evolution and determinants. Oikos 103:247–260

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Almeida PR, Quintella BR, Dias NM (2002) Movement of radio-tagged anadromous sea lamprey during the spawning migration in the River Mondego (Portugal). Hydrobiologia 483:1–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arnould JPY, Monk J, Ierodiaconou D et al (2015) Use of anthropogenic sea floor structures by Australian fur seals: potential positive ecological impacts of marine industrial development? PLoS One 10:e0130581

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Avens L, Lohmann KJ (2003) Use of multiple orientation cues by juvenile loggerhead sea turtles Caretta caretta. J Exp Biol 206:4317–4325

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baudouin M, de Thoisy B, Chambault P et al (2015) Identification of key marine areas for conservation based on satellite tracking of post-nesting migrating green turtles (Chelonia mydas). Biol Conserv 184:36–41

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berejikian BA, Moore ME, Jeffries SJ (2016) Predator–prey interactions between harbor seals and migrating steelhead trout smolts revealed by acoustic telemetry. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 543:21–35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biebach H, Biebach I, Friedrich W et al (2000) Strategics of passerine migration across the Mediterranean Sea and the Sahara Desert: a radar study. Ibis 142:623–634

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop CM, Hawkes LA, Chua B et al (2014) The roller coaster flight strategy of bar-headed geese conserves energy during Himalayan migrations. Science 347:250–254

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blumenthal JM, Solomon JL, Bell CD et al (2006) Satellite tracking highlights the need for international cooperation in marine turtle management. Endanger Species Res 2:51–61

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowlin MS, Wikelski M (2008) Pointed wings, low wingloading and calm air reduce migratory flight costs in songbirds. PLoS One 3:e2154

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Broderick AC, Coyne MS, Fuller WJ et al (2007) Fidelity and over-wintering of sea turtles. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 274:1533–1539

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carbone F, Accordi G (2000) The Indian Ocean coast of Somalia. Mar Pollut Bull 41:141–159

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chevaillier D, Karpytchev M, Mcconnell BJ et al (2014) Can gray seals maintain heading within areas of high tidal current? Preliminary results from numerical modeling and GPS observations. Mar Mamm Sci 30:374–380

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christiansen F, Putman NF, Farman R et al (2016) Spatial variation in directional swimming enables juvenile sea turtles to reach and remain in productive waters. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 557:247–250

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christiansen F, Esteban N, Mortimer JA et al (2017) Diel and seasonal patterns in activity and home range size of green turtles on their foraging grounds revealed by extended Fastloc-GPS tracking. Mar Biol 77:285–299

    Google Scholar 

  • Domeier ML, Nasby-Lucas N (2013) Two-year migration of adult female white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) reveals widely separated nursery areas and conservation concerns. Anim Biotelemetry 1:1–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dujon AM, Lindstrom RT, Hays GC (2014) The accuracy of Fastloc-GPS locations and implications for animal tracking. Methods Ecol Evol 5:1162–1169

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ehrenfeld DW, Koch AL (1967) Visual accommodation in the green turtle. Science 155:827–828

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Enstipp MR, Ballorain K, Ciccione S et al (2016) Energy expenditure of adult green turtles at their foraging grounds and during simulated oceanic migration. Funct Ecol 30:1810–1825

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Esteban N, van Dam RP, Harrison E et al (2015) Green and hawksbill turtles in the Lesser Antilles demonstrate behavioural plasticity in inter-nesting behaviour and post-nesting migration. Mar Biol 162:1153–1163

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Esteban N, Mortimer JA, Hays GC (2017) How numbers of nesting sea turtles can be overestimated by nearly a factor of two. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 284:20162581

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fagan WF, Lewis MA, Auger-Méthé M et al (2013) Spatial memory and animal movement. Ecol Lett 16:1316–1329

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Girard C, Sudre J, Benhamou S et al (2006) Homing in green turtles Chelonia mydas: oceanic currents act as a constraint rather than as an information source. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 322:281–289

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Godley BJ, Broderick AC, Glen F, Hays GC (2003) Post-nesting movements and submergence patterns of loggerhead marine turtles in the Mediterranean assessed by satellite tracking. J Exp Mar Bio Ecol 287:119–134

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guilford T, Taylor GK (2014) The sun compass revisited. Anim Behav 97:135–143

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamann M, Limpus CJ, Owens DW (2002) Reproductive cycles of males and females. In: Wyneken J (ed) The biology of sea turtles, vol II. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 135–161

    Google Scholar 

  • Hatase H, Omuta K, Tsukamoto K (2007) Bottom or midwater: alternative foraging behaviours in adult female loggerhead sea turtles. J Zool 273:46–55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hays GC, Scott R (2013) Global patterns for upper ceilings on migration distance in sea turtles and comparisons with fish, birds and mammals. Funct Ecol 27:748–756

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hays GC, Adams C, Broderick AC et al (2000) The diving behaviour of green turtles at Ascension Island. Anim Behav 59:577–586

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hays GC, Åkesson S, Broderick AC et al (2003) Island-finding ability of marine turtles. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 270:S5–S7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hays GC, Christensen A, Fossette S et al (2014a) Route optimisation and solving Zermelo’s navigation problem during long distance migration in cross flows. Ecol Lett 17:137–143

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hays GC, Mortimer JA, Ierodiaconou D, Esteban N (2014b) Use of long-distance migration patterns of an endangered species to inform conservation planning for the world’s largest marine protected area. Conserv Biol 28:1636–1644

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hays GC, Ferreira LC, Sequeira AMM et al (2016) Key questions in marine megafauna movement ecology. Trends Ecol Evol 31:463–475

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hedenström A (1993) Migration by soaring or flapping flight in birds: the relative importance of energy cost and speed. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 342:353–361

    Google Scholar 

  • Hedenström A, Alerstam T (1992) Climbing performance of migrating birds as a basis for estimating limits for fuel-carrying capacity and muscle work. J Exp Biol 164:19–38

    Google Scholar 

  • Hedenström A, Norevik G, Warfvinge K et al (2016) Annual 10-month aerial life phase in the common swift Apus apus. Curr Biol 26:3066–3070

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hein AM, Hou C, Gillooly JF (2012) Energetic and biomechanical constraints on animal migration distance. Ecol Lett 15:104–110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jonsen ID, Myers RA, James MC (2006) Robust hierarchical state-space models reveal diel variation in travel rates of migrating leatherback turtles. J Anim Ecol 75:1046–1057

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy JS (1951) The migration of the Desert Locust (Schistocerca gregaria Forsk.). I. The Behaviour of swarms. II. A theory of long-range migrations. Philos Trans R Soc B 235:163–290

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn C, Tremblay Y, Ream R, Gelatt T (2010) Coupling GPS tracking with dive behavior to examine the relationship between foraging strategy and fine-scale movements of northern fur seals. Endanger Species Res 12:125–139

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lohmann KJ, Lohmann CMF (1996) Orientation and open-sea navigation in sea turtles. J Exp Biol 199:73–81

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Luschi P, Hays GC, Del Seppia C et al (1998) The navigational feats of green sea turtles migrating from Ascension Island investigated by satellite telemetry. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 265:2279–2284

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Luschi P, Hays GC, Papi F (2003) A review of long-distance movements by marine turtles, and the possible role of ocean currents. Oikos 103:293–302

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luschi P, Benhamou S, Girard C et al (2007) Marine turtles use geomagnetic cues during open-sea homing. Curr Biol 17:126–133

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lyamin OI, Manger PR, Ridgway SH et al (2008) Cetacean sleep: an unusual form of mammalian sleep. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 32:1451–1484

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mate BR (2012) Implementation of acoustic dosimeters with recoverable month-long GPS/TDR tags to interpret controlled-exposure experiments for large whales. Adv Exp Med Biol 730:203–205

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mate BR, Best PB, Lagerquist BA, Winsor MH (2011) Coastal, offshore, and migratory movements of South African right whales revealed by satellite telemetry. Mar Mammal Sci 27:455–476

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCord J, Davis A (2012) Characteristics of monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) that stopover at a site in coastal South Carolina during fall migration. J Res Lepid 45:1–8

    Google Scholar 

  • McGuire LP, Guglielmo CG, Mackenzie SA, Taylor PD (2012) Migratory stopover in the long-distance migrant silver-haired bat, Lasionycteris noctivagans. J Anim Ecol 81:377–385

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minamikawa S, Naito Y, Itaru U (1997) Buoyancy control in diving behavior of the loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta. J Ethol 15:109–118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mott CR, Salmon M (2011) Sun compass orientation by juvenile green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas). Chelonian Conserv Biol 10:73–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Müller F, Taylor PD, Sjöberg S et al (2016) Towards a conceptual framework for explaining variation in nocturnal departure time of songbird migrants. Mov Ecol. doi:10.1186/s40462-016-0089-2

    Google Scholar 

  • Narazaki T, Sato K, Abernathy KJ et al (2013) Loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) use vision to forage on gelatinous prey in mid-water. PLoS One 8:e66043

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ogden JC, Robinson L, Whitlock K et al (1983) Diel foraging patterns in juvenile green turtles (Chelonia mydas L.) in St. Croix United States virgin islands. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 66:199–205

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • QGIS Development Team (2015) GIS geographic information system. Open Source Geospatial Foundation, Chicago, USA

  • Quinn TP (1980) Evidence for celestial and magnetic compass orientation in lake migrating sockeye salmon fry. J Comp Physiol 137:243–248

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R Development Core Team (2013) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria

  • Rattenborg NC, Voirin B, Cruz SM et al (2016) Evidence that birds sleep in mid-flight. Nat Commun 7:12468

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rice MR, Balazs GH (2008) Diving behavior of the Hawaiian green turtle (Chelonia mydas) during oceanic migrations. J Exp Mar Bio Ecol 356:121–127

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sawyer H, Kauffman MJ (2011) Stopover ecology of a migratory ungulate. J Anim Ecol 80:1078–1087

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schaub M, Pradel R, Jenni L, Lebreton JD (2001) Migrating birds stop over longer than usually thought: an improved capture-recapture analysis. Ecology 82:852–859

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheffer A, Trathan PN, Edmonston JG, Bost CA (2016) Combined influence of meso-scale circulation and bathymetry on the foraging behaviour of a diving predator, the king penguin (Aptenodytes patagonicus). Prog Oceanogr 141:1–16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schofield G, Hobson VJ, Fossette S et al (2010) Fidelity to foraging sites, consistency of migration routes and habitat modulation of home range by sea turtles. Divers Distrib 16:840–853

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schofield G, Dimadi A, Fossette S et al (2013a) Satellite tracking large numbers of individuals to infer population level dispersal and core areas for the protection of an endangered species. Divers Distrib 19:834–844

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schofield G, Scott R, Dimadi A et al (2013b) Evidence-based marine protected area planning for a highly mobile endangered marine vertebrate. Biol Conserv 161:101–109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schofield G, Scott R, Katselidis KA et al (2015) Quantifying wildlife-watching ecotourism intensity on an endangered marine vertebrate. Anim Conserv 18:517–528

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott R, Marsh R, Hays GC (2014) Ontogeny of long distance migration. Ecology 95:2840–2850

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shimada T, Jones R, Limpus C, Hamann M (2016) Time-restricted orientation of green turtles. J Exp Mar Bio Ecol 484:31–38

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Southwood A, Avens L (2010) Physiological, behavioral, and ecological aspects of migration in reptiles. J Comp Physiol B Biochem Syst Environ Physiol 180:1–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strandberg R, Alerstam T (2007) The strategy of fly-and-forage migration, illustrated for the osprey (Pandion haliaetus). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 61:1865–1875

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thys TM, Ryan JP, Dewar H et al (2015) Ecology of the Ocean Sunfish, Mola mola, in the southern California Current System. J Exp Mar Bio Ecol 471:64–76

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tomkiewicz SM, Fuller MR, Kie JG, Bates KK (2010) Global positioning system and associated technologies in animal behaviour and ecological research. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci 365:2163–2176

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vardanis Y, Klaassen RHG, Strandberg R, Alerstam T (2011) Individuality in bird migration: routes and timing. Biol Lett 7:502–505

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willimont LA, Senner SE, Goodrich LJ (1988) Fall migration of ruby-throated hummingbirds in the Northeastern United States. Wilson Bull 100:203–206

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Professor Gerry P. Quinn for providing statistical support and comments on the manuscript. We are grateful for support during Diego Garcia fieldwork provided by Dr Jeanne A Mortimer, BF BIOT, MRAG Ltd, NAVFACFE PWD DG Environmental Department, and the many volunteers on Diego Garcia in October 2012.

Author information

Author notes

  1. Antoine M. Dujon and Gail Schofield contributed equally to this manuscript.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Centre for Integrative Ecology, Deakin University, PO Box 423, Warrnambool, VIC, 3280, Australia

    Antoine M. Dujon, Gail Schofield, Rebecca E. Lester & Graeme C. Hays

  2. Department of Biosciences, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK

    Nicole Esteban

Authors
  1. Antoine M. Dujon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gail Schofield
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Rebecca E. Lester
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Nicole Esteban
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Graeme C. Hays
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

GS and GCH conceived the study. GS, NE and GCH conducted the fieldwork. AMD and GS assimilated the data and conducted the analyses, with input from GCH and REL. AMD and GS led the writing, with input from NE, REL and GCH.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Antoine M. Dujon or Gail Schofield.

Ethics declarations

Funding

Green turtle Argos-linked Fastloc-GPS tracking data were supported by a Grant to GCH from the Darwin Initiative Challenge Fund Grant (EIDCF008), the Department of the Environment Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) and financial assistance from the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) and College of Science of Swansea University.

Ethical standards

Permits and ethical approval to attach transmitters to loggerhead turtles were provided by the National Marine Park of Zakynthos. Permits for attachment of transmitters to green turtles in the Chagos Archipelago were issued by the Commissioner for the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT). Fieldwork was approved by the Swansea University Ethics Committee and the BIOT Scientific Advisory Group (SAG) of the U.K. Foreign and Commonwealth Office.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Responsible Editor: J.D.R. Houghton.

Reviewed by undisclosed experts.

Electronic supplementary material

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Dujon, A.M., Schofield, G., Lester, R.E. et al. Fastloc-GPS reveals daytime departure and arrival during long-distance migration and the use of different resting strategies in sea turtles. Mar Biol 164, 187 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-017-3216-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-017-3216-8

Search

Navigation