Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The effects of dietary protein concentration on feeding and growth of small Lytechinus variegatus (Echinodermata: Echinoidea)

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Marine Biology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Understanding the nutritional requirements of Lytechinus variegatus is essential to define its role in the marine environment and necessary for successful culture of this species. Protein is an essential component for growth, yet the requirements for protein in most marine organisms are not known. Small Lytechinus variegatus (ca. 14 mm diameter, n=160) were collected at St. Joseph Bay, Florida in March 2000. They were held in aquaria and fed ad libitum one of four diets varying in protein concentration (9, 15, 21, or 33% dry weight) for 14 weeks. Diets ≥21% dry weight protein were sufficient for maximal growth and survivorship. Individuals fed a diet low in protein compensated by consuming higher quantities of food per gram wet weight. However, the protein was insufficient to support maximal growth and survivorship. Total dry matter absorption, protein absorption, and carbohydrate absorption of the prepared feeds were higher than reported for natural diets. Total production and production efficiency was lowest in those fed the low-protein diet. Gonad production occurred in individuals with test diameters smaller than reported previously in field populations and was lowest in those fed the low-protein diet. The acini of both females and males were predominantly composed of nutritive phagocytes, suggesting that growing L. variegatus use the gonad primarily as a nutrient storage organ and not for reproduction. In females the growth rate of oocytes increased with dietary protein. In males, protein concentration ≥21% resulted in an increase in the volume of germinal epithelium and a decrease in the volume of nutritive phagocytes. The minimal requirement for protein in L. variegatus from approximately 1 g to 15 g total weight is >15% dry weight for the conditions of this experiment. The requirement for a diet >15% protein corroborates with field studies that indicate L. variegatus consumes epibionts and animal tissues preferentially to seagrass, and that the microbial, microfloral, and microfaunal community living on the seagrass may provide the extra protein required for growth and survival of small L. variegatus.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1A, B
Fig. 2
Fig. 3A, B
Fig. 4A, B
Fig. 5A, B
Fig. 6A, B
Fig. 7A, B
Fig. 8
Fig. 9A, B

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Akiyama DM, Dominy WG, Lawrence AL (1992) Panaeid shrimp nutrition. In: Fast AW, Lester LJ (eds) Culture of marine shrimp: principles and practices. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 539–572

  • Akiyama T, Unuma T, Yamamoto T (2001) Optimum protein level in a purified diet for young red sea urchin Pseudocentrotus depressus. Fish Sci 67:361–363

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beddingfield SD, McClintock JB (1998) Differential survivorship, reproduction, growth and nutrient allocation in the regular echinoid Lytechinus variegatus (Lamarck) fed natural diets. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 226:195–215

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beddingfield SD, McClintock JB (2000) Demographic characteristics of Lytechinus variegatus (Echinoidea: Echinodermata) from three habitats in a north Florida Bay, Gulf of Mexico. Mar Ecol 21:17–40

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Briscoe CS, Sebens KP (1988) Omnivory in Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis (Muller) (Echinodermata: Echinoidea): predation on subtidal mussels. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 115:1–24

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burkholder PR, Burkholder LM, Rivero JA (1959) Some chemical constituents of turtle grass, Thalassia testudinum. Bull Torrey Bot Club 86:88–93

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Byrne M (1990) Annual reproductive cycles of the commercial sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus from an exposed intertidal and a sheltered subtidal habitat on the west coast of Ireland. Mar Biol 104:275–289

    Google Scholar 

  • Caltagirone A, Francour P, Fernandez C (1992) Formulation of an artificial diet for rearing of the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus I. Comparison of different binding agents. In: Scalera-Liaci L, Canicatti C (eds) Echinoderm research. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 115–119

  • Cantor AB (1997) Extending SAS survival analysis techniques for medical research. SAS Institute, Cary, N.C.

  • Dawes CJ, Lawrence JM (1983) Proximate composition and caloric content of seagrasses. Mar Technol Soc J 17:53–58

    Google Scholar 

  • de Jong-Westman M, March BE, Carefoot TH (1995) The effect of different nutrient formulations in artificial diets on gonad growth in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis. Can J Zool 73:1495–1502

    Google Scholar 

  • De Ridder C, Lawrence JM (1982) Food and feeding mechanisms: Echinoidea. In: Jangoux M, Lawrence JM (eds) Echinoderm nutrition. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 57–115

  • Dubois M, Gilles KA, Gilles JK, Hamilton JK, Rebers PA, Smith R (1956) Colorimetric method for determination of sugars and related substances. Anal Chem 28:350–356

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elmhirst R (1922) Habits of Echinus esculentus. Nature 110:667

    Google Scholar 

  • Emson RH, Moore PG (1998) Diet and gonad size in three populations of Echinus esculentus. In: Mooi R, Telford M (eds) Echinoderms: San Francisco. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 641–644

  • Engstrom NA (1982) Immigration as a factor in maintaining populations of the sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) in seagrass beds on the southwest coast of Puerto Rico. Stud Neotrop Fauna Environ 17:51–60

    Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez C, Boudouresque C (1998) Evaluating artificial diets for small Paracentrotus lividus (Echinodermata: Echinoidea). In: Mooi R, Telford M (eds) Echinoderms: San Francisco. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 651–656

  • Fernandez C, Dombrowski E, Caltagirone A (1995) Gonadic growth of adult sea urchins, Paracentrotus lividus (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) in rearing: the effect of different diet types. In: Emson R, Smith A, Campbell A (eds) Echinoderm research. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 269–275

  • Fuji A (1967) Ecological studies on the growth and food consumption of Japanese common littoral sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus intermedius (A. Agassiz). Mem Fac Fish Hokkaido Univ 15:83–160

    Google Scholar 

  • George SB, Lawrence JM, Lawrence AL, Ford J (2000) Fertilization and development of eggs of the sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus maintained on extruded feed. J World Aquacult Soc 31:232–238

    Google Scholar 

  • Giese AC (1966) On the biochemical constitution of some echinoderms. In: Boolootian RA (ed) Physiology of Echinodermata. Interscience, New York, pp 757–796

  • Greenway M (1995) Trophic relationships of macrofauna within a Jamaican seagrass meadow and the role of the echinoid Lytechinus variegatus (Lamarck). Bull Mar Sci 56:719–736

    Google Scholar 

  • Grosjean P, Spirlet C, Jangoux M (1996) Experimental study of growth in the echinoid Paracentrotus lividus (Lamarck, 1816) (Echinodermata). J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 201:173–184

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hammer HS, Watts SA, Lawrence JM, Lawrence AL, McClintock JB (2001) The effect of dietary protein concentration on gonad composition and gametic condition in the sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus. Am Zool 49:1042–1043

    Google Scholar 

  • Herrera JC (1998) Nutritional strategies of echinoplutei. PhD thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville

  • Hinegardner RT (1969) Growth and development of the laboratory cultured sea urchin. Biol Bull 137:465–475

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen M (1969) Breeding and growth of Psammechinus miliaris. Ophelia 7:65–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Kawamura K (1974) Fishery biological studies on a sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus intermedius (A. Agassiz). Sci Rep Hokkaido Fish Exp Station 16:1–54

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly MS, Brodie CC, McKenzie JD (1998) Somatic and gonadal growth of the sea urchin Psammechinus miliaris (Gmelin) maintained in polyculture with the Atlantic salmon. J Shellfish Res 17:1557–1562

    Google Scholar 

  • Klinger TS (1982) Feeding rates of Lytechinus variegatus Lamarck (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) on differing physiognomies of an artificial food of uniform composition. In: Lawrence JM (ed) Echinoderms: proceedings of the international conference, Tampa Bay. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 29–32

  • Klinger TS, Lawrence JM, Lawrence AL (1997) Gonad and somatic production of Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis fed manufactured feeds. Bull Aquacult Assoc Can 1:35–37

    Google Scholar 

  • Klinger TS, Lawrence JM, Lawrence AL (1998) Digestion, absorption, and assimilation of prepared feeds by echinoids. In: Mooi R, Telford M (eds) Echinoderms: San Francisco. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 713–721

  • Lawrence JM (1975) On the relationship between marine plants and sea urchins. Oceanogr Mar Biol Annu Rev 13:213–286

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence JM (2000) Conflict between somatic and gonadal growth in sea urchins: a review. Workshop on coordination of green sea urchin research in Atlantic Canada, Moncton. http://crdpm.umcs.ca/OURSIN/

  • Lawrence JM, Olave S, Otaiza R, Lawrence AL, Bustos E (1997) Enhancement of gonad production in the sea urchin Loxechinus albus in Chile fed extruded feeds. J World Aquacult Soc 28:91–96

    Google Scholar 

  • Leighton DL (1968) A comparative study of food selection and nutrition in the abalone, Haliotis rufescens Swainson, and the sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus Stimpson. PhD thesis, University of California, San Diego

  • Levin VS, Naidenko VP (1987) Artificial diets for the laboratory-maintained sea urchin Strongylocentrotus intermedius. Mar Biol (Vladivostok) 6:50–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Lowe EF (1975) Absorption efficiencies, feeding rates, and food preferences of Lytechinus variegatus (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) for selected marine plants. PhD thesis, University of South Florida, Tampa

  • Lowe EF, Lawrence JM (1976) Absorption efficiencies of Lytechinus variegatus (Lamarck) (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) for selected marine plants. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 21:223–234

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lowry OH, Rosebrough NJ, Farr AL, Randall RJ (1951) Protein measurement with the folin reagent. J Biol Chem 1934:265–275

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazur JE, Miller JW (1971) A description of the complete metamorphosis of the sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus cultured in synthetic sea water. Ohio J Sci 71:30–36

    Google Scholar 

  • McBride SC, Lawrence JM, Lawrence AL, Mulligan TJ (1998) The effect of protein concentration in prepared feeds on growth, feeding rate, total organic absorption, and gross assimilation efficiency of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus fransiscanus. J Shellfish Res 17:1563–1570

    Google Scholar 

  • McClintock JB, Klinger TS, Lawrence JM (1982) Feeding preferences of echinoids for plant and animal food models. Bull Mar Sci 32:365–369

    Google Scholar 

  • McEdward LR, Herrera JC (1999) Body form and skeletal morphometrics during larval development of the sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus Lamarck. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 232:151–176

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meidel SK, Scheibling RE (1999) Effects of food type and ration on reproductive maturation and growth of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis. Mar Biol 134:155–166

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moir RJ (1994) The ‘carnivorous’ herbivore. In: Chivers DJ, Langer P (eds) The digestive system in mammals: food, form and function. Cambridge University Press, New York pp 87–102

  • Moore HB, McPherson BF (1965) A contribution to the study of the productivity of the urchins Tripneustes esculentus and Lytechinus variegatus. B Mar Sci 15:855–870

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore HB, Jutare T, Bauer JC, Jones JA (1963) The biology of Lytechinus variegatus. Bull Mar Sci Gulf Carib 13:23–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Olave S, Bustos E, Lawrence JM, Carcama P (2001) The effect of size and diet on gonad production by the Chilean sea urchin Loxechinus albus. J World Aquacult Soc 32:210–214

    Google Scholar 

  • Pawson DL, Miller JE (1982) Studies of genetically controlled phenotypic characters in laboratory-reared Lytechinus variegatus (Lamarck) (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) from Bermuda and Florida. In: Lawrence JM (ed) Echinoderms: proceedings of the international conference, Tampa Bay. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 165–171

  • Regis M-B (1981) Aspects morphometriques de la croissance de deux Echinoides du Golfe de Marseille, Paracentrotus lividus (Lmk) et Arbacia lixula L. Cah Biol Mar 22:349–370

    Google Scholar 

  • Rivera JA (1979) Aspects of the biology of Lytechinus variegatus (Lamarck, 1816) at Jobos Bay, Puerto Rico (Echinoidea: Toxopneustidae). Master’s thesis, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez

  • Robinson SMC, Colborne L (1997) Enhancing roe of the green sea urchin using an artificial food source. Bull Aquacult Assoc Can 97:14–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell MP (1998) Resource allocation plasticity in sea urchins: rapid, diet induced, phenotypic changes in the green sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis (Muller). J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 220:1–14

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sklener SA (1994) Interactions between sea urchin grazers (Lytechinus variegatus and Arbacia punctulata) and mussels (Modiolus americanus): a mutualistic relationship? Master’s thesis, University of South Alabama, Mobile

  • Spirlet C, Grosjean P, Jangoux M (1994) Differentiation of the genital apparatus in a juvenile echinoid (Paracentrotus lividus). In: David B, Guille A, Feral J, Roux M (eds) Echinoderms through time. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 881–886

  • Strathmann MF (1987) Reproduction and development of marine invertebrates of the northern Pacific coast. University of Washington Press, Seattle

  • Traer K (1980) The consumption of Posidonia oceanica Delile by echinoids at the Isle of Ischia. In: Jangoux M (ed) Echinoderms: present and past. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 241–244

  • Vadas RL, Fenchel T, Ogden JC (1982) Ecological studies on the sea urchin, Lytechinus variegatus, and the algal-seagrass communities of the Miskito Cays, Nicaragua. Aquat Bot 14:109–125

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace BD (2001) The effects of dietary protein concentration on feeding and growth of small Lytechinus variegatus. Master’s thesis, University of Alabama at Birmingham

  • Watts SA, McClintock JB, Lawrence JB (2001) The ecology of Lytechinus variegatus. In: Lawrence JM (ed) The biology of edible sea urchins. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 375–393

  • Wilson RP (1989) Amino acids and proteins. In: Halver JE (ed) Fish nutrition. Academic, San Diego, pp 112–151

  • Zar JH (1996) Biostatistical analysis, 3rd edn. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, N.J.

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Dr. Mickie Powell, Scott Hofer, Adele Cunningham, Victoria Gibbs, Rebecca Worrell, and Janna Owens for technical assistance and animal care. This research was supported by the Mississippi–Alabama Sea Grant Consortium, grant number NA86RG0039, and the Alabama Academy of Science. This research was approved by the Animal Resource Program (011103710) at the University of Alabama at Birmingham.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1300 University Blvd., Campbell Hall 375, Birmingham, AL 35294-1170, USA

    B. W. Hammer, H. S. Hammer & S. A. Watts

  2. Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-3300, USA

    R. A. Desmond

  3. Department of Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620-5200, USA

    J. M. Lawrence

  4. Agricultural Experimental Station, Texas A&M University, Port Aransas, TX 78363, USA

    A. L. Lawrence

Authors
  1. B. W. Hammer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. H. S. Hammer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. S. A. Watts
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. R. A. Desmond
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. J. M. Lawrence
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. A. L. Lawrence
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to S. A. Watts.

Additional information

Communicated by P.W. Sammarco, Chauvin

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Hammer, B.W., Hammer, H.S., Watts, S.A. et al. The effects of dietary protein concentration on feeding and growth of small Lytechinus variegatus (Echinodermata: Echinoidea). Marine Biology 145, 1143–1157 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-004-1391-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-004-1391-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation