Abstract
Motor learning performance has been shown to be affected by various cognitive factors such as the focus of attention and motor imagery ability. Most previous studies on motor learning have shown that directing the attention of participants externally, such as on the outcome of an assigned body movement, can be more effective than directing their attention internally, such as on body movement itself. However, to the best of our knowledge, no findings have been reported on the effect of the focus of attention selected according to the motor imagery ability of an individual on motor learning performance. We measured individual motor imagery ability assessed by the Movement Imagery Questionnaire and classified the participants into kinesthetic-dominant (n = 12) and visual-dominant (n = 8) groups based on the questionnaire score. Subsequently, the participants performed a motor learning task such as tracing a trajectory using visuomotor rotation. When the participants were required to direct their attention internally, the after-effects of the learning task in the kinesthetic-dominant group were significantly greater than those in the visual-dominant group. Conversely, when the participants were required to direct their attention externally, the after-effects of the visual-dominant group were significantly greater than those of the kinesthetic-dominant group. Furthermore, we found a significant positive correlation between the size of after-effects and the modality-dominance of motor imagery. These results suggest that a suitable attention strategy based on the intrinsic motor imagery ability of an individual can improve performance during motor learning tasks.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Castaneda B, Gray R (2007) Effects of focus of attention on baseball batting performance in players of differing skill levels. J Sport Exerc Psychol 29:60–77
Coombes SA, Higgins T, Gamble KM, Cauraugh JH, Janelle CM (2009) Attentional control theory: anxiety, emotion, and motor planning. J Anxiety Disord 23:1072–1079. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.07.009
Cressman EK, Henriques DY (2009) Sensory recalibration of hand position following visuomotor adaptation. J Neurophysiol 102:3505–3518. doi:10.1152/jn.00514.2009
Damasio A (2003) Feelings of emotion and the self. Ann NY Acad Sci 1001:253–261
Domschke K, Stevens S, Pfleiderer B, Gerlach AL (2010) Interoceptive sensitivity in anxiety and anxiety disorders: an overview and integration of neurobiological findings. Clin Psychol Rev 30:1–11. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.08.008
Fourkas AD, Bonavolonta V, Avenanti A, Aglioti SM (2008) Kinesthetic imagery and tool-specific modulation of corticospinal representations in expert tennis players. Cereb Cortex 18:2382–2390. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhn005
Gentili R, Papaxanthis C, Pozzo T (2006) Improvement and generalization of arm motor performance through motor imagery practice. Neuroscience 137:761–772. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.10.013
Goss S, Hall C, Buckolz E, Fishburne G (1986) Imagery ability and the acquisition and retention of movements. Mem Cognit 14:469–477. doi:10.3758/BF03202518
Guillot A, Collet C, Nguyen VA, Malouin F, Richards C, Doyon J (2009) Brain activity during visual versus kinesthetic imagery: an fMRI study. Hum Brain Mapp 30:2157–2172. doi:10.1002/hbm.20658
Guillot A, Desliens S, Rouyer C, Rogowski I (2013) Motor imagery and tennis serve performance: the external focus efficacy. J Sport Sci Med 12:332–338
Hall CR, Martin KA (1997) Measuring movement imagery abilities: a revision of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire. J Ment Imag 21:143–154
Hetu S, Gregoire M, Saimpont A, Coll MP, Eugene F, Michon PE, Jackson PL (2013) The neural network of motor imagery: an ALE meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 37:930–949. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.03.017
Hultsch DF, MacDonald SW, Dixon RA (2002) Variability in reaction time performance of younger and older adults. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 57:P101–P115. doi:10.1093/geronb/57.2.P101
Itthipuripat S, Ester EF, Deering S, Serences JT (2014) Sensory gain outperforms efficient readout mechanisms in predicting attention-related improvements in behavior. J Neurosci 34:13384–13398. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2277-14.2014
Krakauer JW (2009) Motor learning and consolidation: the case of visuomotor rotation. Adv Exp Med Biol 629:405–421. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-77064-2_21
Lebon F, Byblow WD, Collet C, Guillot A, Stinear CM (2012) The modulation of motor cortex excitability during motor imagery depends on imagery quality. Eur J Neurosci 35:323–331. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2011.07938.x
Lohse KR, Sherwood DE, Healy AF (2010) How changing the focus of attention affects performance, kinematics, and electromyography in dart throwing. Hum Mov Sci 29:542–555. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2010.05.001
Malouin F, Richards CL, Jackson PL, Lafleur MF, Durand A, Doyon J (2007) The Kinesthetic and Visual Imagery Questionnaire (KVIQ) for assessing motor imagery in persons with physical disabilities: a reliability and construct validity study. J Neurol Phys Ther 31:20–29
Malouin F, Richards CL, Durand A (2010) Normal aging and motor imagery vividness: implications for mental practice training in rehabilitation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 91:1122–1127. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2010.03.007
Matthias E, Schandry R, Duschek S, Pollatos O (2009) On the relationship between interoceptive awareness and the attentional processing of visual stimuli. Int J Psychophysiol 72:154–159. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.12.001
McNevin NH, Shea CH, Wulf G (2003) Increasing the distance of an external focus of attention enhances learning. Psychol Res 67:22–29. doi:10.1007/s00426-002-0093-6
Miller EK, Buschman TJ (2012) Cortical circuits for the control of attention. Curr Opin Neurobiol. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2012.11.011
Nuri L, Shadmehr A, Ghotbi N, Attarbashi Moghadam B (2013) Reaction time and anticipatory skill of athletes in open and closed skill-dominated sport. Eur J Sport Sci 13:431–436. doi:10.1080/17461391.2012.738712
Oldfield RC (1971) The assessment and analysis of handedness: the Edinburgh inventory. Neuropsychologia 9:97–113. doi:10.1016/0028-3932(71)90067-4
Peh SY-C, Chow JY, Davids K (2011) Focus of attention and its impact on movement behaviour. J Sci Med Sport 14:70–78. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2010.07.002
Perkins-Ceccato N, Passmore SR, Lee TD (2003) Effects of focus of attention depend on golfers’ skill. J Sport Sci 21:593–600. doi:10.1080/0264041031000101980
Rahnev D, Maniscalco B, Graves T, Huang E, de Lange FP, Lau H (2011) Attention induces conservative subjective biases in visual perception. Nat Neurosci 14:1513–1515. doi:10.1038/nn.2948
Sacco K, Cauda F, Cerliani L, Mate D, Duca S, Geminiani GC (2006) Motor imagery of walking following training in locomotor attention. The effect of ‘the tango lesson’. Neuroimage 32:1441–1449. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.05.018
Schandry R (1981) Heart beat perception and emotional experience. Psychophysiology 18:483–488. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1981.tb02486.x
Solodkin A, Hlustik P, Chen EE, Small SL (2004) Fine modulation in network activation during motor execution and motor imagery. Cereb Cortex 14:1246–1255. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhh086
TAC Oliveira, RA Denardi, Tani G, Corrêa UC (2013) Effects of internal and external attentional foci on motor skill learning: testing the automation hypothesis. Hum Mov 14:194–199. doi:10.2478/humo-2013-0022
Taube W, Lorch M, Zeiter S, Keller M (2014) Non-physical practice improves task performance in an unstable, perturbed environment: motor imagery and observational balance training. Front Hum Neurosci 8:972. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00972
Tipper SP, Baylis GC (1987) Individual differences in selective attention: the relation of priming and interference to cognitive failure. Personal Indiv Differ 8:667–675. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(87)90064-X
Vaitl D (1996) Interoception. Biol Psychol 42:1–27
Wang C-H et al (2013) Open vs. closed skill sports and the modulation of inhibitory control. PLoS ONE 8:e55773. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055773
Wong JD, Wilson ET, Gribble PL (2011) Spatially selective enhancement of proprioceptive acuity following motor learning. J Neurophysiol 105:2512–2521. doi:10.1152/jn.00949.2010
Wriessnegger SC, Steyrl D, Koschutnig K, Muller-Putz GR (2014) Short time sports exercise boosts motor imagery patterns: implications of mental practice in rehabilitation programs. Front Hum Neurosci 8:469. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00469
Wulf G (2013) Attentional focus and motor learning: a review of 15 years. Int Rev Sport Exerc Psychol 6:77–104. doi:10.1080/1750984X.2012.723728
Wulf G, Höß M, Prinz W (1998) Instructions for motor learning: differential effects of internal versus external focus of attention. J Mot Behav 30:169–179. doi:10.1080/00222899809601334
Wulf G, McNevin N, Shea CH (2001) The automaticity of complex motor skill learning as a function of attentional focus. Q J Exp Psychol A 54:1143–1154. doi:10.1080/02724980143000118
Wulf G, Dufek JS, Lozano L, Pettigrew C (2010) Increased jump height and reduced EMG activity with an external focus. Hum Mov Sci 29:440–448. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2009.11.008
Zachry T, Wulf G, Mercer J, Bezodis N (2005) Increased movement accuracy and reduced EMG activity as the result of adopting an external focus of attention. Brain Res Bull 67:304–309. doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2005.06.035
Acknowledgments
This research was supported in part by JSPS KAKENHI, Grant Numbers 15K16366 (T. Sakurada) and 25871228 (M. Hirai). We thank laboratory members for their support and encouragement.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sakurada, T., Hirai, M. & Watanabe, E. Optimization of a motor learning attention-directing strategy based on an individual’s motor imagery ability. Exp Brain Res 234, 301–311 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-015-4464-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-015-4464-9