Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Hormones and risk of breast and gynecological cancer

A systematic review

Hormone und das Risiko für Brustkrebs und gynäkologische Malignome

Ein systematisches Review

  • Review
  • Published:
Der Gynäkologe Aims and scope

Abstract

Background

Breast and gynecological cancers are often hormone dependent. The role of reproductive factors and endogenous hormones in tumorigenesis of these tumors has been investigated in numerous studies. Safety of oral contraception, hormone therapy during perimenopause or postmenopause or fertility treatment is of special interest for the information of women who are planning to use these therapies.

Objective

This article provides an update on the current knowledge on hormones and risk of breast and gynecological cancers.

Material and methods

We performed a systematic search in the Medline literature database through PubMed using the search terms “estrogen”, “testosterone”, “progesterone”, “gestagen”, “progestagen”, “hormone therapy”, “hormone treatment”, “hormonal contraception”, “ovulation induction”, “menopausal” “breast cancer”, “ovarian cancer”, “endometrial cancer” and “cervical cancer”. Articles published between 2010 and may 2016 were included.

Results and conclusion

Reproductive factors influence tumorigenesis of breast, ovarian and endometrial cancers. Oral contraception increases breast cancer risk but is protective against ovarian and endometrial cancers. The influence of ovarian hyperstimulation has been controversially discussed and no clear association with these hormone-dependent tumors has been observed. Hormone therapy in perimenopause and postmenopause and its influence on hormone dependent cancers is highly complex. Combined therapy containing estrogen and progestin (EPT) seems to increase breast cancer risk after use for approximately 5 years whereas estrogen only therapy (ET) does not or to a lesser extent. Hormone therapy increases ovarian cancer risk. Endometrial cancer risk is significantly increased by ET, whereas for EPT no significant effect has been observed. After diagnosis of breast and gynecological cancers hormone therapy is contraindicated as an increased risk of recurrence cannot be ruled out.

Zusammenfassung

Hintergrund

Mammakarzinome und gynäkologische Malignome sind häufig hormonabhängig. Die Rolle reproduktiver Faktoren bei der Karzinogenese dieser Tumoren wurde in zahlreichen Studien untersucht. Die Sicherheit oraler Kontrazeption, peri- und postmenopausaler Hormontherapie bzw. Ovulationsinduktion ist im Hinblick auf die Beratung von Frauen, die diese Therapien erwägen, von besonderem klinischem Interesse.

Ziel der Arbeit

Dieser Artikel soll eine aktuelle Übersicht über den Einfluss von Hormonen auf das Risiko für Mammakarzinome und gynäkologische Tumoren liefern.

Material und Methoden

Wir führten eine systematische Suche in der „Medline“ Literaturdatenbank über „Pubmed“ durch. Die Suchbegriffe lauteten „estrogen“, „testosterone“, „progesterone“, „gestagen“, „progestagen“, „hormone therapy“, „hormone treatment“, „hormonal contraception“, „ovulation induction“, „menopausal“ „breast cancer“, „ovarian cancer“, „endometrial cancer“ and „cervical cancer“. Eingeschlossen wurden Artikel, die zwischen 2010 und Mai 2016 publiziert worden sind.

Ergebnisse und Diskussion

Reproduktive Faktoren beeinflussen die Karzinogenese von Mamma-, Ovarial- und Endometriumkarzinomen. Orale Kontrazeptiva führen zu einer Erhöhung des Mammakarzinomrisikos, wirken aber protektiv auf das Risiko für Ovarial- und Endometriumkarzinome. Der Einfluss von Fertilitätstherapien wird kontrovers diskutiert, zwischen ovarieller Hyperstimulation und hormonabhängigen Tumoren war kein eindeutiger Zusammenhang festzustellen. Die Wirkungen peri- und postmenopausaler Hormontherapien (HT) auf hormonabhängige Karzinome sind hochkomplex. Kombinierte Östrogen-Gestagen-HTs (EPT) erhöhen das Mammakarzinomrisiko ab circa 5‑jähriger Anwendung, bei alleiniger Östrogentherapie (ET) ist dies nicht vorhanden bzw. weniger ausgeprägt. Eine HT erhöht das Risiko für Ovarialkarzinome. Eine ET erhöht das Risiko für Endometriumkarzinome signifikant, für eine EPT dagegen wurde kein signifikanter Effekt gezeigt. Für Patientinnen mit diagnostiziertem Mamma-, Ovarial- oder Endometriummalignom ist eine HT kontraindiziert, da sich ein erhöhtes Rezidivrisiko nicht ausschließen lässt.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Ali AT (2014) Reproductive factors and the risk of endometrial cancer. Int J Gynecol Cancer 24:384–393

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Allen NE, Key TJ, Dossus L et al (2008) Endogenous sex hormones and endometrial cancer risk in women in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). Endocr Relat Cancer 15:485–497

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Ameye L, Antoine C, Paesmans M et al (2014) Menopausal hormone therapy use in 17 European countries during the last decade. Maturitas 79:287–291

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Anderson GL, Chlebowski RT, Aragaki AK et al (2012) Conjugated equine oestrogen and breast cancer incidence and mortality in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: extended follow-up of the Women’s Health Initiative randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Oncol 13:476–486

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Anonymous (1996) Breast cancer and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 53 297 women with breast cancer and 100 239 women without breast cancer from 54 epidemiological studies. Lancet 347:1713–1727

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Anonymous (1997) Breast cancer and hormone replacement therapy: collaborative reanalysis of data from 51 epidemiological studies of 52,705 women with breast cancer and 108,411 women without breast cancer. Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Lancet 350:1047–1059

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Anonymous (2005) The role of testosterone therapy in postmenopausal women: position statement of the North American Menopause Society. Menopause 12:496–511 (quiz 649)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Anonymous (2012) Ovarian cancer and body size: individual participant meta-analysis including 25,157 women with ovarian cancer from 47 epidemiological studies. PLOS Med 9:e1001200

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Anonymous (2012) The 2012 hormone therapy position statement of: the North American Menopause Society. Menopause 19:257–271

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Anonymous (2015) Endometrial cancer and oral contraceptives: an individual participant meta-analysis of 27 276 women with endometrial cancer from 36 epidemiological studies. Lancet Oncol 16:1061–1070

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Antoine C, Ameye L, Paesmans M et al (2016) Menopausal hormone therapy use in relation to breast cancer incidence in 11 European countries. Maturitas 84:81–88

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Antoine C, Liebens F, Carly B et al (2007) Safety of hormone therapy after breast cancer: a qualitative systematic review. Hum Reprod 22:616–622

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Antoine C, Ameye L, Paesmans M et al (2012) Update of the evolution of breast cancer incidence in relation to hormone replacement therapy use in Belgium. Maturitas 72:317–323

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Antoine C, Ameye L, Paesmans M et al (2014) Treatment of climacteric symptoms in breast cancer patients: a retrospective study from a medication databank. Maturitas 78:228–232

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Appleby P, Beral V, Berrington De Gonzalez A et al (2007) Cervical cancer and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data for 16,573 women with cervical cancer and 35,509 women without cervical cancer from 24 epidemiological studies. Lancet 370:1609–1621

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Asante A, Leonard PH, Weaver AL et al (2013) Fertility drug use and the risk of ovarian tumors in infertile women: a case-control study. Fertil Steril 99:2031–2036

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Ayhan A, Taskiran C, Simsek S et al (2006) Does immediate hormone replacement therapy affect the oncologic outcome in endometrial cancer survivors? Int J Gynecol Cancer 16:805–808

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Bakken K, Fournier A, Lund E et al (2011) Menopausal hormone therapy and breast cancer risk: impact of different treatments. The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Int J Cancer 128:144–156

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Ballard-Barbash R, Friedenreich CM, Courneya KS et al (2012) Physical activity, biomarkers, and disease outcomes in cancer survivors: a systematic review. J Natl Cancer Inst 104:815–840

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Benkhadra K, Mohammed K, Al Nofal A et al (2015) Menopausal hormone therapy and mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 100:4021–4028

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Beral V (2003) Breast cancer and hormone-replacement therapy in the Million Women Study. Lancet 362:419–427

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Beral V, Bull D, Green J et al (2007) Ovarian cancer and hormone replacement therapy in the Million Women Study. Lancet 369:1703–1710

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Beral V, Reeves G, Bull D et al (2011) Breast cancer risk in relation to the interval between menopause and starting hormone therapy. J Natl Cancer Inst 103:296–305

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Beral V, Gaitskell K, Hermon C et al (2015) Menopausal hormone use and ovarian cancer risk: individual participant meta-analysis of 52 epidemiological studies. Lancet 385:1835–1842

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Bhaskaran K, Douglas I, Forbes H et al (2014) Body-mass index and risk of 22 specific cancers: a population-based cohort study of 5.24 million UK adults. Lancet 384:755–765

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Biglia N, Bounous VE, Sgro LG et al (2015) Treatment of climacteric symptoms in survivors of gynaecological cancer. Maturitas 82:296–298

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Biliatis I, Thomakos N, Rodolakis A et al (2012) Safety of hormone replacement therapy in gynaecological cancer survivors. J Obstet Gynaecol 32:321–325

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Bodelon C, Wentzensen N, Schonfeld SJ et al (2013) Hormonal risk factors and invasive epithelial ovarian cancer risk by parity. Br J Cancer 109:769–776

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Bosetti C, Negri E, Franceschi S et al (2001) Relationship between postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy and ovarian cancer. JAMA 285:3089 (author reply 3090)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Brinton LA, Moghissi KS, Scoccia B et al (2005) Ovulation induction and cancer risk. Fertil Steril 83:261–274 (quiz 525–266)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Brinton LA, Key TJ, Kolonel LN et al (2015) Prediagnostic sex steroid hormones in relation to male breast cancer risk. J Clin Oncol 33:2041–2050

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Cancer CGOHFIB (2012) Menarche, menopause, and breast cancer risk: individual participant meta-analysis, including 118 964 women with breast cancer from 117 epidemiological studies. Lancet Oncol 13:1141–1151

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Cancer IaFRO (2005) IARC monographs programme finds combined estrogen-progestogen contraceptives and menopausal therapy are carcinogenic to humans. Press release N° 167. IARC, Lyon

    Google Scholar 

  34. Canchola AJ, Chang ET, Bernstein L et al (2010) Body size and the risk of endometrial cancer by hormone therapy use in postmenopausal women in the California Teachers Study cohort. Cancer Causes Control 21:1407–1416

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Canchola AJ, Chang ET, Bernstein L et al (2010) Body size and the risk of ovarian cancer by hormone therapy use in the California Teachers Study cohort. Cancer Causes Control 21:2241–2248

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Canchola AJ, Anton-Culver H, Bernstein L et al (2012) Body size and the risk of postmenopausal breast cancer subtypes in the California Teachers Study cohort. Cancer Causes Control 23(3):473–485. doi:10.1007/s10552-012-9897-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Canchola AJ, Lacey JV Jr., Bernstein L et al (2015) Dietary patterns and endometrial cancer risk in the California Teachers Study cohort. Cancer Causes Control 26(CCC):627–634

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Chapman JA, Disaia PJ, Osann K et al (1996) Estrogen replacement in surgical stage I and II endometrial cancer survivors. Am J Obstet Gynecol 175:1195–1200

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Chin J, Konje JC, Hickey M (2009) Levonorgestrel intrauterine system for endometrial protection in women with breast cancer on adjuvant tamoxifen. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd007245.pub2

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Chlebowski RT, Anderson GL (2012) Changing concepts: Menopausal hormone therapy and breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 104:517–527

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  41. Chlebowski RT, Hendrix SL, Langer RD et al (2003) Influence of estrogen plus progestin on breast cancer and mammography in healthy postmenopausal women: the Women’s Health Initiative Randomized Trial. JAMA 289:3243–3253

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Chlebowski RT, Anderson GL, Gass M et al (2010) Estrogen plus progestin and breast cancer incidence and mortality in postmenopausal women. JAMA 304:1684–1692

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Chlebowski RT, Anderson GL, Aragaki AK et al (2016) Breast cancer and menopausal hormone therapy by race/ethnicity and body mass index. J Natl Cancer Inst 108(2):djv327

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Col NF, Kim JA, Chlebowski RT (2005) Menopausal hormone therapy after breast cancer: a meta-analysis and critical appraisal of the evidence. Breast Cancer Res 7:R535–R540

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Collaborative Group on Epidemiological Studies of Ovarian Cancer (2008) Ovarian cancer and oral contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of data from 45 epidemiological studies including 23257 women with ovarian cancer and 87303 controls. Lancet 371:303–314

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Collins JA, Blake JM, Crosignani PG (2005) Breast cancer risk with postmenopausal hormonal treatment. Hum Reprod Update 11:545–560

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Coombs NJ, Cronin KA, Taylor RJ et al (2010) The impact of changes in hormone therapy on breast cancer incidence in the US population. Cancer Causes Control 21:83–90

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Cordina-Duverger E, Truong T, Anger A et al (2013) Risk of breast cancer by type of menopausal hormone therapy: a case-control study among post-menopausal women in France. PLOS ONE 8:e78016

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Creasman WT (2005) Hormone replacement therapy after cancers. Curr Opin Oncol 17:493–499

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Creasman WT, Henderson D, Hinshaw W et al (1986) Estrogen replacement therapy in the patient treated for endometrial cancer. Obstet Gynecol 67:326–330

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Crosbie EJ, Zwahlen M, Kitchener HC et al (2010) Body mass index, hormone replacement therapy, and endometrial cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 19:3119–3130

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Cummings SR, Ettinger B, Delmas PD et al (2008) The effects of tibolone in older postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med 359:697–708

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Cust AE, Kaaks R, Friedenreich C et al (2007) Metabolic syndrome, plasma lipid, lipoprotein and glucose levels, and endometrial cancer risk in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). Endocr Relat Cancer 14:755–767

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Davis SR, Moreau M, Kroll R et al (2008) Testosterone for low libido in postmenopausal women not taking estrogen. N Engl J Med 359:2005–2017

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Davis SR, Hirschberg AL, Wagner LK et al (2009) The effect of transdermal testosterone on mammographic density in postmenopausal women not receiving systemic estrogen therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94:4907–4913

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. De P, Neutel CI, Olivotto I et al (2010) Breast cancer incidence and hormone replacement therapy in Canada. J Natl Cancer Inst 102:1489–1495

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Delgado-Rodriguez M, Sillero-Arenas M, Rodriguez-Contreras R et al (1991) Oral contraceptives and breast cancer. A meta-analysis. Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique 39:165–181

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Dominick S, Hickey M, Chin J et al (2015) Levonorgestrel intrauterine system for endometrial protection in women with breast cancer on adjuvant tamoxifen. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd007245.pub3

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Donders G, Neven P, Moegele M et al (2014) Ultra-low-dose estriol and Lactobacillus acidophilus vaginal tablets (Gynoflor((R))) for vaginal atrophy in postmenopausal breast cancer patients on aromatase inhibitors: pharmacokinetic, safety, and efficacy phase I clinical study. Breast Cancer Res Treat 145:371–379

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  60. Dor J, Lerner-Geva L, Rabinovici J et al (2002) Cancer incidence in a cohort of infertile women who underwent in vitro fertilization. Fertil Steril 77:324–327

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Dossus L, Allen N, Kaaks R et al (2010) Reproductive risk factors and endometrial cancer: the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Int J Cancer 127:442–451

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Dossus L, Rinaldi S, Becker S et al (2010) Obesity, inflammatory markers, and endometrial cancer risk: a prospective case-control study. Endocr Relat Cancer 17:1007–1019

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  63. Dossus L, Lukanova A, Rinaldi S et al (2013) Hormonal, metabolic, and inflammatory profiles and endometrial cancer risk within the EPIC cohort – a factor analysis. Am J Epidemiol 177:787–799

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Eeles RA, Tan S, Wiltshaw E et al (1991) Hormone replacement therapy and survival after surgery for ovarian cancer. BMJ 302:259–262

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Eeles RA, Morden JP, Gore M et al (2015) Adjuvant hormone therapy may improve survival in epithelial ovarian cancer: results of the AHT randomized trial. J Clin Oncol 33:4138–4144

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Eliassen AH, Missmer SA, Tworoger SS et al (2006) Endogenous steroid hormone concentrations and risk of breast cancer among premenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst 98:1406–1415

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Ennour-Idrissi K, Maunsell E, Diorio C (2015) Effect of physical activity on sex hormones in women: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Breast Cancer Res 17:139

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Ereman RR, Prebil LA, Mockus M et al (2010) Recent trends in hormone therapy utilization and breast cancer incidence rates in the high incidence population of Marin County, California. BMC Public Health 10:228

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Fahlen M, Fornander T, Johansson H et al (2013) Hormone replacement therapy after breast cancer: 10 year follow up of the Stockholm randomised trial. Eur J Cancer 49:52–59

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Farhat GN, Walker R, Buist DS et al (2010) Changes in invasive breast cancer and ductal carcinoma in situ rates in relation to the decline in hormone therapy use. J Clin Oncol 28:5140–5146

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  71. Farrell R (2016) ACOG committee opinion no. 659: the use of vaginal estrogen in women with a history of estrogen-dependent breast cancer. Obstet Gynecol 127:e93–96

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Fearnley EJ, Marquart L, Spurdle AB et al (2010) Polycystic ovary syndrome increases the risk of endometrial cancer in women aged less than 50 years: an Australian case-control study. Cancer Causes Control 21:2303–2308

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Felix AS, Gaudet MM, La Vecchia C et al (2015) Intrauterine devices and endometrial cancer risk: a pooled analysis of the Epidemiology of Endometrial Cancer Consortium. Int J Cancer 136:E410–E422

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Formoso G, Perrone E, Maltoni S et al (2012) Short and long term effects of tibolone in postmenopausal women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd008536.pub2

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Fortner RT, Schock H, Kaaks R et al (2014) Early pregnancy sex steroids and maternal breast cancer: a nested case-control study. Cancer Res 74:6958–6967

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  76. Fournier A, Berrino F, Clavel-Chapelon F (2008) Unequal risks for breast cancer associated with different hormone replacement therapies: results from the E3N cohort study. Breast Cancer Res Treat 107:103–111

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Fournier A, Fabre A, Mesrine S et al (2008) Use of different postmenopausal hormone therapies and risk of histology- and hormone receptor-defined invasive breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 26:1260–1268

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  78. Fournier A, Mesrine S, Boutron-Ruault MC et al (2009) Estrogen-progestagen menopausal hormone therapy and breast cancer: Does delay from menopause onset to treatment initiation influence risks? J Clin Oncol 27:5138–5143

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Friedenreich CM, Biel RK, Lau DC et al (2011) Case-control study of the metabolic syndrome and metabolic risk factors for endometrial cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 20:2384–2395

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Friedenreich CM, Neilson HK, Wang Q et al (2015) Effects of exercise dose on endogenous estrogens in postmenopausal women: a randomized trial. Endocr Relat Cancer 22:863–876

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Fu Y, Zhuang Z (2014) Long-term effects of levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system on tamoxifen-treated breast cancer patients: a meta-analysis. Int J Clin Exp Pathol 7:6419–6429

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  82. Furness S, Roberts H, Marjoribanks J et al (2012) Hormone therapy in postmenopausal women and risk of endometrial hyperplasia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd000402.pub4

    Google Scholar 

  83. Garg PP, Kerlikowske K, Subak L et al (1998) Hormone replacement therapy and the risk of epithelial ovarian carcinoma: a meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol 92:472–479

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Gennari A, Costa M, Puntoni M et al (2015) Breast cancer incidence after hormonal treatments for infertility: systematic review and meta-analysis of population-based studies. Breast Cancer Res Treat 150:405–413

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Gizzo S, Di Gangi S, Bertocco A et al (2014) Levonorgestrel intrauterine system in adjuvant tamoxifen treatment: balance of breast risks and endometrial benefits – systematic review of literature. Reprod Sci 21:423–431

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Gompel A, Plu-Bureau G (2010) Is the decrease in breast cancer incidence related to a decrease in postmenopausal hormone therapy? Ann N Y Acad Sci 1205:268–276

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Gompel A, Santen RJ (2012) Hormone therapy and breast cancer risk 10 years after the WHI. Climacteric 15:241–249

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Grabrick DM, Hartmann LC, Cerhan JR et al (2000) Risk of breast cancer with oral contraceptive use in women with a family history of breast cancer. JAMA 284:1791–1798

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Grady D, Gebretsadik T, Kerlikowske K et al (1995) Hormone replacement therapy and endometrial cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol 85:304–313

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Greiser CM, Greiser EM, Doren M (2005) Menopausal hormone therapy and risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis of epidemiological studies and randomized controlled trials. Hum Reprod Update 11:561–573

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Greiser CM, Greiser EM, Doren M (2007) Menopausal hormone therapy and risk of ovarian cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum Reprod Update 13:453–463

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Guidozzi F (2013) Estrogen therapy in gynecological cancer survivors. Climacteric 16:611–617

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Guidozzi F, Daponte A (1999) Estrogen replacement therapy for ovarian carcinoma survivors: a randomized controlled trial. Cancer 86:1013–1018

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Haoula ZJ, Walker KF, Powell MC (2011) Levonorgestrel intra-uterine system as a treatment option for complex endometrial hyperplasia. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 159:176–179

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Hemminki E, Kyyronen P, Pukkala E (2008) Postmenopausal hormone drugs and breast and colon cancer: Nordic countries 1995–2005. Maturitas 61:299–304

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Hentschel S, Heinz J, Schmid-Hopfner S et al (2010) The impact of menopausal hormone therapy on the incidence of different breast cancer types – data from the Cancer Registry Hamburg 1991–2006. Cancer Epidemiol 34:639–643

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Holm M, Olsen A, Kroman N et al (2014) Lifestyle influences on the association between pre-diagnostic hormone replacement therapy and breast cancer prognosis – results from The Danish ‘Diet, Cancer and Health’ prospective cohort. Maturitas 79:442–448

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Holmberg L, Anderson H (2004) HABITS (hormonal replacement therapy after breast cancer – is it safe?), a randomised comparison: trial stopped. Lancet 363:453–455

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Holmberg L, Iversen OE, Rudenstam CM et al (2008) Increased risk of recurrence after hormone replacement therapy in breast cancer survivors. J Natl Cancer Inst 100:475–482

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Hulley S, Grady D, Bush T et al (1998) Randomized trial of estrogen plus progestin for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women. Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Research Group. JAMA 280:605–613

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Hulley S, Furberg C, Barrett-Connor E et al (2002) Noncardiovascular disease outcomes during 6.8 years of hormone therapy: Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study follow-up (HERS II). JAMA 288:58–66

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, IaFRO Cancer, World Health Organization (1999) Hormonal contraception and post-menopausal hormonal therapy. WHO, IARC, Lyon

    Google Scholar 

  103. Ibeanu O, Modesitt SC, Ducie J et al (2011) Hormone replacement therapy in gynecologic cancer survivors: why not? Gynecol Oncol 122:447–454

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Islami F, Liu Y, Jemal A et al (2015) Breastfeeding and breast cancer risk by receptor status – a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Oncol 26:2398–2407

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  105. James RE, Lukanova A, Dossus L et al (2011) Postmenopausal serum sex steroids and risk of hormone receptor-positive and -negative breast cancer: a nested case-control study. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 4:1626–1635

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Jensen A, Jensen A, Sharif H et al (2009) Use of fertility drugs and risk of ovarian cancer: Danish population based cohort study. BMJ 338:b249. doi:10.1136/bmj.b249

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  107. Jung S, Egleston BL, Chandler DW et al (2015) Adolescent endogenous sex hormones and breast density in early adulthood. Breast Cancer Res 17:77

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Kaaks R, Rinaldi S, Key TJ et al (2005) Postmenopausal serum androgens, oestrogens and breast cancer risk: the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition. Endocr Relat Cancer 12:1071–1082

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Kabat GC, Kim MY, Woods NF et al (2011) Reproductive and menstrual factors and risk of ductal carcinoma in situ of the breast in a cohort of postmenopausal women. Cancer Causes Control 22:1415–1424

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Kabat GC, Kamensky V, Heo M et al (2014) Combined conjugated esterified estrogen plus methyltestosterone supplementation and risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. Maturitas 79:70–76

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Kahlenborn C, Modugno F, Potter DM et al (2006) Oral contraceptive use as a risk factor for premenopausal breast cancer: a meta-analysis. Mayo Clin Proc 81:1290–1302

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Karimi-Zarchi M, Dehghani-Firoozabadi R, Tabatabaie A et al (2013) A comparison of the effect of levonorgestrel IUD with oral medroxyprogesterone acetate on abnormal uterine bleeding with simple endometrial hyperplasia and fertility preservation. Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol 40:421–424

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Kashyap S, Moher D, Fung MF et al (2004) Assisted reproductive technology and the incidence of ovarian cancer: a meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol 103:785–794

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Katalinic A, Rawal R (2008) Decline in breast cancer incidence after decrease in utilisation of hormone replacement therapy. Breast Cancer Res Treat 107:427–430

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Kay CR, Hannaford PC (1988) Breast cancer and the pill – a further report from the Royal College of General Practitioners’ oral contraception study. Br J Cancer 58:675–680

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  116. Kenemans P, Bundred NJ, Foidart JM et al (2009) Safety and efficacy of tibolone in breast-cancer patients with vasomotor symptoms: a double-blind, randomised, non-inferiority trial. Lancet Oncol 10:135–146

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Kerlikowske K, Miglioretti DL, Buist DS et al (2007) Declines in invasive breast cancer and use of postmenopausal hormone therapy in a screening mammography population. J Natl Cancer Inst 99:1335–1339

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Kerlikowske K, Cook AJ, Buist DS et al (2010) Breast cancer risk by breast density, menopause, and postmenopausal hormone therapy use. J Clin Oncol 28:3830–3837

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  119. Kesim MD, Aydin Y, Atis A et al (2008) Long-term effects of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system on serum lipids and the endometrium in breast cancer patients taking tamoxifen. Climacteric 11:252–257

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Key TJ, Appleby PN, Reeves GK et al (2013) Sex hormones and risk of breast cancer in premenopausal women: a collaborative reanalysis of individual participant data from seven prospective studies. Lancet Oncol 14:1009–1019

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Key TJ, Appleby PN, Reeves GK et al (2015) Steroid hormone measurements from different types of assays in relation to body mass index and breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women: reanalysis of eighteen prospective studies. Steroids 99:49–55

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Koskela-Niska V, Pukkala E, Lyytinen H et al (2013) Effect of various forms of postmenopausal hormone therapy on the risk of ovarian cancer – a population-based case control study from Finland. Int J Cancer 133:1680–1688

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Kumle M, Weiderpass E, Braaten T et al (2002) Use of oral contraceptives and breast cancer risk: the Norwegian-Swedish Women’s Lifestyle and Health Cohort Study. Cancer epidemiology, biomarkers & prevention : a publication of the American Association for Cancer Research, cosponsored by the American Society of Preventive. Oncology 11:1375–1381

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Kwan ML, Chen WY, Kroenke CH et al (2012) Pre-diagnosis body mass index and survival after breast cancer in the After Breast Cancer Pooling Project. Breast Cancer Res Treat 132:729–739

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Lacey JV Jr., Mink PJ, Lubin JH et al (2002) Menopausal hormone replacement therapy and risk of ovarian cancer. JAMA 288:334–341

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Lambe M, Wigertz A, Holmqvist M et al (2010) Reductions in use of hormone replacement therapy: effects on Swedish breast cancer incidence trends only seen after several years. Breast Cancer Res Treat 121:679–683

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Lee RB, Burke TW, Park RC (1990) Estrogen replacement therapy following treatment for stage I endometrial carcinoma. Gynecol Oncol 36:189–191

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Lee SA, Ross RK, Pike MC (2005) An overview of menopausal oestrogen-progestin hormone therapy and breast cancer risk. Br J Cancer 92:2049–2058

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  129. Leidenberger F, Strowitzki T, Ortmann O (2014) Klinische Endokrinologie für Frauenärzte. Springer, Heidelberg

    Book  Google Scholar 

  130. Leitzmann MF, Koebnick C, Danforth KN et al (2009) Body mass index and risk of ovarian cancer. Cancer 115:812–822

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  131. Lerner-Geva L, Geva E, Lessing JB et al (2003) The possible association between in vitro fertilization treatments and cancer development. Int J Gynecol Cancer 13:23–27

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Lethaby A, Farquhar C, Sarkis A et al (2000) Hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women: endometrial hyperplasia and irregular bleeding. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd000402

    Google Scholar 

  133. Levgur M (2004) Estrogen and combined hormone therapy for women after genital malignancies: a review. J Reprod Med 49:837–848

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Li CI, Daling JR (2007) Changes in breast cancer incidence rates in the United States by histologic subtype and race/ethnicity, 1995 to 2004. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 16:2773–2780

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Li CI, Malone KE, Porter PL et al (2008) Relationship between menopausal hormone therapy and risk of ductal, lobular, and ductal-lobular breast carcinomas. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 17:43–50

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Li D, Ding CY, Qiu LH (2015) Postoperative hormone replacement therapy for epithelial ovarian cancer patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Gynecol Oncol 139:355–362

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Li LL, Zhou J, Qian XJ et al (2013) Meta-analysis on the possible association between in vitro fertilization and cancer risk. Int J Gynecol Cancer 23:16–24

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Liu Z, Zhang TT, Zhao JJ et al (2015) The association between overweight, obesity and ovarian cancer: a meta-analysis. Jpn J Clin Oncol 45:1107–1115

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Longatto-Filho A, Hammes LS, Sarian LO et al (2011) Hormonal contraceptives and the length of their use are not independent risk factors for high-risk HPV infections or high-grade CIN. Gynecol Obstet Invest 71:93–103

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Lu L, Risch H, Irwin ML et al (2011) Long-term overweight and weight gain in early adulthood in association with risk of endometrial cancer. Int J Cancer 129:1237–1243

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  141. Luhn P, Dallal CM, Weiss JM et al (2013) Circulating adipokine levels and endometrial cancer risk in the prostate, lung, colorectal, and ovarian cancer screening trial. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 22:1304–1312

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Lumsden MA, Davies M, Sarri G (2016) Diagnosis and Management of Menopause: the National Institute of Health and Care Excellence (NICE) Guideline. JAMA Intern Med 176(8):1205. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.2761

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Luo J, Cochrane BB, Wactawski-Wende J et al (2013) Effects of menopausal hormone therapy on ductal carcinoma in situ of the breast. Breast Cancer Res Treat 137:915–925

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Lupo M, Dains JE, Madsen LT (2015) Hormone replacement therapy: an increased risk of recurrence and mortality for breast cancer patients? J Adv Pract Oncol 6:322–330

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  145. Lurie G, Thompson P, Mcduffie KE et al (2007) Association of estrogen and progestin potency of oral contraceptives with ovarian carcinoma risk. Obstet Gynecol 109:597–607

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Mahdavi A, Mahdavi A, Pejovic T et al (2006) Induction of ovulation and ovarian cancer: a critical review of the literature. Fertil Steril 85:819–826

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Manley K, Edey K, Braybrooke J et al (2012) Hormone replacement therapy after endometrial cancer. Menopause Int 18:134–138

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Mariani L, Gadducci A, Vizza E et al (2013) Vaginal atrophy in breast cancer survivors: role of vaginal estrogen therapy. Gynecol Endocrinol 29:25–29

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Marks M, Gravitt PE, Gupta SB et al (2011) The association of hormonal contraceptive use and HPV prevalence. Int J Cancer 128:2962–2970

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Marshall SF, Clarke CA, Deapen D et al (2010) Recent breast cancer incidence trends according to hormone therapy use: the California Teachers Study cohort. Breast Cancer Res 12:R4

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Mascarenhas C, Lambe M, Bellocco R et al (2006) Use of hormone replacement therapy before and after ovarian cancer diagnosis and ovarian cancer survival. Int J Cancer 119:2907–2915

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Mazzarello S, Hutton B, Ibrahim MF et al (2015) Management of urogenital atrophy in breast cancer patients: a systematic review of available evidence from randomized trials. Breast Cancer Res Treat 152:1–8

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Michaelson-Cohen R, Beller U (2009) Managing menopausal symptoms after gynecological cancer. Curr Opin Oncol 21:407–411

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Michels KB (2012) The rise and fall of breast cancer rates. BMJ 344:d8003

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Morch LS, Lokkegaard E, Andreasen AH et al (2009) Hormone therapy and ovarian cancer. JAMA 302:298–305

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Mueck AO, Seeger H, Rabe T (2010) Hormonal contraception and risk of endometrial cancer: a systematic review. Endocr Relat Cancer 17:R263–R271

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Nachtigall L, Casson P, Lucas J et al (2011) Safety and tolerability of testosterone patch therapy for up to 4 years in surgically menopausal women receiving oral or transdermal oestrogen. Gynecol Endocrinol 27:39–48

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Negri E, Tzonou A, Beral V et al (1999) Hormonal therapy for menopause and ovarian cancer in a collaborative re-analysis of European studies. Int J Cancer 80:848–851

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Nelson HD, Humphrey LL, Nygren P et al (2002) Postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy: scientific review. JAMA 288:872–881

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Ness RB, Cramer DW, Goodman MT et al (2002) Infertility, fertility drugs, and ovarian cancer: a pooled analysis of case-control studies. Am J Epidemiol 155:217–224

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Neuhouser ML, Aragaki AK, Prentice RL et al (2015) Overweight, obesity, and postmenopausal invasive breast cancer risk: a secondary analysis of the Women’s Health Initiative randomized clinical trials. JAMA Oncol 1:611–621

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  162. Ni XJ, Xia TS, Zhao YC et al (2012) Postmenopausal hormone therapy is associated with in situ breast cancer risk. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 13:3917–3925

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Norman SA, Weber AL, Localio AR et al (2010) Hormone therapy and fatal breast cancer. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 19:440–447

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  164. Olsen CM, Nagle CM, Whiteman DC et al (2013) Obesity and risk of ovarian cancer subtypes: evidence from the Ovarian Cancer Association Consortium. Endocr Relat Cancer 20:251–262

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Orbo A, Vereide A, Arnes M et al (2014) Levonorgestrel-impregnated intrauterine device as treatment for endometrial hyperplasia: a national multicentre randomised trial. BJOG 121:477–486

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Ortmann O, König K (2005) Hormontherapie im Klimakterium und in der Postmenopause. Dtsch Arztebl 102:144–147

    Google Scholar 

  167. Ortmann O, Doren M, Windler E (2011) Hormone therapy in perimenopause and postmenopause (HT). Interdisciplinary S3 Guideline, Association of the Scientific Medical Societies in Germany AWMF 015/062-short version. Arch Gynecol Obstet 284:343–355

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  168. Pearce CL, Chung K, Pike MC et al (2009) Increased ovarian cancer risk associated with menopausal estrogen therapy is reduced by adding a progestin. Cancer 115:531–539

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  169. Pelucchi C, Levi F, La Vecchia C (2010) The rise and fall in menopausal hormone therapy and breast cancer incidence. Breast 19:198–201

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Pergialiotis V, Pitsouni E, Prodromidou A et al (2016) Hormone therapy for ovarian cancer survivors: systematic review and meta-analysis. Menopause 23:335–342

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Prentice RL, Manson JE, Langer RD et al (2009) Benefits and risks of postmenopausal hormone therapy when it is initiated soon after menopause. Am J Epidemiol 170:12–23

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  172. Ravdin PM, Cronin KA, Howlader N et al (2007) The decrease in breast-cancer incidence in 2003 in the United States. N Engl J Med 356:1670–1674

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Reeves GK, Pirie K, Beral V et al (2007) Cancer incidence and mortality in relation to body mass index in the Million Women Study: cohort study. BMJ 335:1134

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  174. Reeves GK, Pirie K, Green J et al (2012) Comparison of the effects of genetic and environmental risk factors on in situ and invasive ductal breast cancer. Int J Cancer 131:930–937

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Riman T, Dickman PW, Nilsson S et al (2002) Hormone replacement therapy and the risk of invasive epithelial ovarian cancer in Swedish women. J Natl Cancer Inst 94:497–504

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. Rinaldi S, Dossus L, Lukanova A et al (2007) Endogenous androgens and risk of epithelial ovarian cancer: results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 16:23–29

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Risch HA (2002) Hormone replacement therapy and the risk of ovarian cancer. Gynecol Oncol 86:115–117

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Ritte R, Lukanova A, Berrino F et al (2012) Adiposity, hormone replacement therapy use and breast cancer risk by age and hormone receptor status: a large prospective cohort study. Breast Cancer Res 14:R76

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  179. Robbins AS, Clarke CA (2007) Regional changes in hormone therapy use and breast cancer incidence in California from 2001 to 2004. J Clin Oncol 25:3437–3439

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  180. Roberts H, Hickey M, Lethaby A (2014) Hormone therapy in postmenopausal women and risk of endometrial hyperplasia: a Cochrane review summary. Maturitas 77:4–6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Rodriguez C, Patel AV, Calle EE et al (2001) Estrogen replacement therapy and ovarian cancer mortality in a large prospective study of US women. JAMA 285:1460–1465

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Romieu I, Berlin JA, Colditz G (1990) Oral contraceptives and breast cancer. Review and meta-analysis. Cancer 66:2253–2263

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Rosato V, Zucchetto A, Bosetti C et al (2011) Metabolic syndrome and endometrial cancer risk. Ann Oncol 22:884–889

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Rose DP, Vona-Davis L (2010) Interaction between menopausal status and obesity in affecting breast cancer risk. Maturitas 66:33–38

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Rosenberg L, Palmer JR, Zauber AG et al (1994) A case-control study of oral contraceptive use and invasive epithelial ovarian cancer. Am J Epidemiol 139:654–661

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. Rossing MA, Daling JR, Weiss NS et al (1994) Ovarian tumors in a cohort of infertile women. N Engl J Med 331:771–776

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Rossing MA, Cushing-Haugen KL, Wicklund KG et al (2007) Menopausal hormone therapy and risk of epithelial ovarian cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 16:2548–2556

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL et al (2002) Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women’s Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA 288:321–333

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Rushton L, Jones DR (1992) Oral contraceptive use and breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis of variations with age at diagnosis, parity and total duration of oral contraceptive use. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 99:239–246

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Rusner C, Bandemer-Greulich U, Engel J et al (2012) Population-based hormone receptor-specific incidence trends of breast cancer in Germany. Maturitas 73:152–157

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Salagame U, Banks E, Sitas F et al (2016) Menopausal hormone therapy use and breast cancer risk in Australia: findings from the New South Wales Cancer, Lifestyle and Evaluation of Risk study. Int J Cancer 138:1905–1914

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Samson M, Porter N, Orekoya O et al (2016) Progestin and breast cancer risk: a systematic review. Breast Cancer Res Treat 155:3–12

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  193. Saso S, Louis LS, Doctor F et al (2015) Does fertility treatment increase the risk of uterine cancer? A meta-analysis. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 195:52–60

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. Saxena T, Lee E, Henderson KD et al (2010) Menopausal hormone therapy and subsequent risk of specific invasive breast cancer subtypes in the California Teachers Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 19:2366–2378

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  195. Schairer C, Fuhrman BJ, Boyd-Morin J et al (2016) Quantifying the role of circulating unconjugated estradiol in mediating the Body Mass Index-Breast Cancer Association. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 25:105–113

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Schernhammer ES, Sperati F, Razavi P et al (2013) Endogenous sex steroids in premenopausal women and risk of breast cancer: the ORDET cohort. Breast Cancer Res 15:R46

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  197. Sergentanis TN, Diamantaras AA, Perlepe C et al (2014) IVF and breast cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum Reprod Update 20:106–123

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  198. Shi LF, Wu Y, Li CY (2016) Hormone therapy and risk of ovarian cancer in postmenopausal women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Menopause 23:417–424

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  199. Shim SH, Lee SJ, Kim SN (2014) Effects of hormone replacement therapy on the rate of recurrence in endometrial cancer survivors: a meta-analysis. Eur J Cancer 50:1628–1637

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  200. Shufelt CL, Braunstein GD (2008) Testosterone and the breast. Menopause Int 14:117–122

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  201. Shushan A, Paltiel O, Iscovich J et al (1996) Human menopausal gonadotropin and the risk of epithelial ovarian cancer. Fertil Steril 65:13–18

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  202. Siristatidis C, Sergentanis TN, Kanavidis P et al (2013) Controlled ovarian hyperstimulation for IVF: impact on ovarian, endometrial and cervical cancer – a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum Reprod Update 19:105–123

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  203. Smith JS, Green J, Berrington De Gonzalez A et al (2003) Cervical cancer and use of hormonal contraceptives: a systematic review. Lancet 361:1159–1167

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  204. Soerjomataram I, Coebergh JW, Louwman MW et al (2007) Does the decrease in hormone replacement therapy also affect breast cancer risk in the Netherlands? J Clin Oncol 25:5038–5039 (author reply 5039–5040)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  205. Soini T, Hurskainen R, Grenman S et al (2016) Levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system and the risk of breast cancer: a nationwide cohort study. Acta Oncol (Madr) 55:188–192

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  206. Stanczyk FZ, Hapgood JP, Winer S et al (2013) Progestogens used in postmenopausal hormone therapy: differences in their pharmacological properties, intracellular actions, and clinical effects. Endocr Rev 34:171–208

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  207. Sturdee DW (2013) Are progestins really necessary as part of a combined HRT regimen? Climacteric 16(Suppl 1):79–84

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  208. Sulaica E, Han T, Wang W et al (2016) Vaginal estrogen products in hormone receptor-positive breast cancer patients on aromatase inhibitor therapy. Breast Cancer Res Treat 157:203–210

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  209. Tamimi RM, Byrne C, Colditz GA et al (2007) Endogenous hormone levels, mammographic density, and subsequent risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst 99:1178–1187

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  210. Thomas CC, Wingo PA, Dolan MS et al (2009) Endometrial cancer risk among younger, overweight women. Obstet Gynecol 114:22–27

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  211. Trabert B, Wentzensen N, Yang HP et al (2012) Ovarian cancer and menopausal hormone therapy in the NIH-AARP diet and health study. Br J Cancer 107:1181–1187

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  212. Trapido EJ (1981) A prospective cohort study of oral contraceptives and breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 67:1011–1015

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  213. Trinkaus M, Chin S, Wolfman W et al (2008) Should urogenital atrophy in breast cancer survivors be treated with topical estrogens? Oncologist 13:222–231

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  214. Tsilidis KK, Allen NE, Key TJ et al (2011) Menopausal hormone therapy and risk of ovarian cancer in the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition. Cancer Causes Control 22:1075–1084

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  215. Tsilidis KK, Allen NE, Key TJ et al (2011) Oral contraceptive use and reproductive factors and risk of ovarian cancer in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Br J Cancer 105:1436–1442

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  216. Ursic-Vrscaj M, Bebar S, Zakelj MP (2001) Hormone replacement therapy after invasive ovarian serous cystadenocarcinoma treatment: the effect on survival. Menopause 8:70–75

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  217. Vaccarella S, Herrero R, Dai M et al (2006) Reproductive factors, oral contraceptive use, and human papillomavirus infection: pooled analysis of the IARC HPV prevalence surveys. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 15:2148–2153

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  218. Varma R, Soneja H, Bhatia K et al (2008) The effectiveness of a levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system (LNG-IUS) in the treatment of endometrial hyperplasia – a long-term follow-up study. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 139:169–175

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  219. Venn A, Watson L, Bruinsma F et al (1999) Risk of cancer after use of fertility drugs with in-vitro fertilisation. Lancet 354:1586–1590

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  220. Verkooijen HM, Koot VC, Fioretta G et al (2008) Hormone replacement therapy, mammography screening and changing age-specific incidence rates of breast cancer: an ecological study comparing two European populations. Breast Cancer Res Treat 107:389–395

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  221. Von Euler-Chelpin M (2011) Breast cancer incidence and use of hormone therapy in Denmark 1978–2007. Cancer Causes Control 22:181–187

    Article  Google Scholar 

  222. Walker K, Bratton DJ, Frost C (2011) Premenopausal endogenous oestrogen levels and breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Br J Cancer 105:1451–1457

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  223. Wan YL, Holland C (2011) The efficacy of levonorgestrel intrauterine systems for endometrial protection: a systematic review. Climacteric 14:622–632

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  224. Wang J, Yang DL, Chen ZZ et al (2016) Associations of body mass index with cancer incidence among populations, genders, and menopausal status: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiol 42:1–8

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  225. Wartko P, Sherman ME, Yang HP et al (2013) Recent changes in endometrial cancer trends among menopausal-age U.S. women. Cancer Epidemiol 37:374–377

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  226. Weedon-Fekjaer H, Bakken K, Vatten LJ et al (2012) Understanding recent trends in incidence of invasive breast cancer in Norway: age-period-cohort analysis based on registry data on mammography screening and hormone treatment use. BMJ 344:e299

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  227. Weiderpass E, Adami HO, Baron JA et al (1999) Risk of endometrial cancer following estrogen replacement with and without progestins. J Natl Cancer Inst 91:1131–1137

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  228. Yang HP, Trabert B, Murphy MA et al (2012) Ovarian cancer risk factors by histologic subtypes in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. Int J Cancer 131:938–948

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  229. Yang HP, Anderson WF, Rosenberg PS et al (2013) Ovarian cancer incidence trends in relation to changing patterns of menopausal hormone therapy use in the United States. J Clin Oncol 31:2146–2151

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  230. Yang TY, Cairns BJ, Allen N et al (2012) Postmenopausal endometrial cancer risk and body size in early life and middle age: prospective cohort study. Br J Cancer 107:169–175

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  231. Yang XR, Chang-Claude J, Goode EL et al (2011) Associations of breast cancer risk factors with tumor subtypes: a pooled analysis from the Breast Cancer Association Consortium studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 103:250–263

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  232. Ye J, Jia J, Dong S et al (2014) Circulating adiponectin levels and the risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis. Eur J Cancer Prev 23:158–165

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  233. Zeng F, Shi J, Long Y et al (2015) Adiponectin and endometrial cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cell Physiol Biochem 36:1670–1678

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  234. Zhao J, Li Y, Zhang Q et al (2015) Does ovarian stimulation for IVF increase gynaecological cancer risk? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Reprod Biomed Online 31:20–29

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  235. Zhou B, Sun Q, Cong R et al (2008) Hormone replacement therapy and ovarian cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Gynecol Oncol 108:641–651

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  236. Zreik TG, Mazloom A, Chen Y et al (2010) Fertility drugs and the risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis and review. Breast Cancer Res Treat 124:13–26

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, University Medical Center Regensburg, Caritas-Hospital St. Josef, Landshuter Straße 65, 93053, Regensburg, Germany

    Susanne Schüler-Toprak, Stephan Seitz & Olaf Ortmann

Authors
  1. Susanne Schüler-Toprak
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Stephan Seitz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Olaf Ortmann
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Susanne Schüler-Toprak.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interests

S. Schüler-Toprak, S. Seitz and O. Ortmann declare that they have no competing interests.

This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Schüler-Toprak, S., Seitz, S. & Ortmann, O. Hormones and risk of breast and gynecological cancer. Gynäkologe 50, 43–54 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00129-016-4004-0

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00129-016-4004-0

Keywords

Schlüsselwörter

Search

Navigation