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A refined genetic model for the Laisvall and Vassbo Mississippi Valley-type sandstone-hosted deposits, Sweden: constraints from paragenetic studies, organic geochemistry, and S, C, N, and Sr isotope data

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Abstract

The current study has aimed to refine the previously proposed two-fluid mixing model for the Laisvall (sphalerite Rb-Sr age of 467 ± 5 Ma) and Vassbo Mississippi Valley-type deposits hosted in Ediacaran to Cambrian sandstone, Sweden. Premineralization cements include authigenic monazite, fluorapatite, and anatase in the Upper Sandstone at Laisvall, reflecting anoxic conditions during sandstone burial influenced by the euxinic character of the overlying carbonaceous middle Cambrian to Lower Ordovician Alum Shale Formation (δ 13Corg = −33.0 to −29.5 ‰, δ 15Norg = 1.5 to 3.3 ‰, 0.33 to 3.03 wt% C, 0.02 to 0.08 wt% N). The available porosity for epigenetic mineralization, including that produced by subsequent partial dissolution of pre-Pb-Zn sulfide calcite and barite cements, was much higher in calcite- and barite-cemented sandstone paleoaquifers (29 % by QEMSCAN mapping) than in those mainly cemented by quartz (8 %). A major change in the Laisvall plumbing system is recognized by the transition from barite cementation to Pb-Zn sulfide precipitation in sandstone. Ba-bearing, reduced, and neutral fluids had a long premineralization residence time (highly radiogenic 87S/86Sr ratios of 0.718 to 0.723) in basement structures. As a result of an early Caledonian arc-continent collision and the development of a foreland basin, fluids migrated toward the craton and expelled Ba-bearing fluids from their host structures into overlying sandstone where they deposited barite upon mixing with a sulfate pool (δ 34Sbarite = 14 to 33 ‰). Subsequently, slightly acidic brines initially residing in pre-Ediacaran rift sediments in the foredeep of the early Caledonian foreland basin migrated through the same plumbing system and acquired metals on the way. The bulk of Pb-Zn mineralization formed at temperatures between 120 and 180 °C by mixing of these brines with a pool of H2S (δ 34S = 24 to 29 ‰) produced via thermochemical sulfate reduction (TSR) with oxidation of hydrocarbons in sandstone. Other minor H2S sources are identified. Upward migration and fluctuation of the hydrocarbon-water interface in sandstone below shale aquicludes and the formation of H2S along this interface explain the shape of the orebodies that splay out like smoke from a chimney and the conspicuous alternating layers of galena and sphalerite. Intimate intergrowth of bitumen with sphalerite suggests that subordinate amounts of H2S might have been produced by TSR during Pb-Zn mineralization. Gas chromatograms of the saturated hydrocarbon fraction from organic-rich shale and from both mineralized and barren sandstone samples indicate that hydrocarbons migrated from source rocks in the overlying Alum Shale Formation buried in the foredeep into sandstone, where they accumulated in favorable traps in the forebulge setting.

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Acknowledgments

This research has been financially supported by Boliden AB (Sweden) and the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNF, Switzerland, FN 146 353). The Geological Survey of Sweden (SGU) provided financial and logistic support for much of the fieldwork in Sweden and for the participation of Michael B. Stephens. The staff members at SGU in Malå are thanked for their help at the national core archive. The authors are grateful to Boliden AB including Hans Årebäck (former exploration manager) and Rodney L. Allen (Manager Geology Research and Development) for financial and logistical support for the work carried out in Boliden and also for stimulating discussions. The staff working at the core archive in Boliden is acknowledged for supplying drill cores. Ulf Sandström, field technician in Boliden, is thanked for his help in managing the device during extraction of samples from outcrops in the Laisvall mine area. Dr. Thierry Adatte (University of Lausanne, Switzerland) is thanked for carrying out Rock-Eval and total organic carbon analyses of the shale samples. Stephen E. Kesler and Andrew Giże are thanked for their pertinent and detailed reviews. We would like to acknowledge the thorough review and editorial work by Karen D. Kelley.

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  1. Nicolas J. Saintilan

    Present address: Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, 1-26 Earth Sciences Building, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E3, Canada

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva, Rue des Maraîchers 13, 1205, Geneva, Switzerland

    Nicolas J. Saintilan, Elias Samankassou, Kalin Kouzmanov, Massimo Chiaradia & Lluís Fontboté

  2. Institute of Earth Surface Dynamics, University of Lausanne, Building Geopolis, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland

    Jorge E. Spangenberg

  3. Geological Survey of Sweden (SGU), Box 670, SE-751 28, Uppsala, Sweden

    Michael B. Stephens

  4. Division of Geosciences, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, SE-971 87, Luleå, Sweden

    Michael B. Stephens

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Editorial handling: K. Kelley and G. Beaudoin

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Electronic supplementary material 1

Detailed description of the workflow of sample selection and the analytical procedures of the various isotope and organic geochemistry studies performed on the selected samples. (DOCX 20 kb)

Electronic supplementary material 2

QEMSCAN aerial data for each mineral species present in the analyzed thin sections (sample 12LAI41 corresponding to Fig. 4a and sample 12LAI66 corresponding to Fig. 4b). In sample 12LAI41, fluorapatite (0.07 % total amount of pixels) is mainly a detrital phase. In sample 12LAI66, fluorapatite (0.02 %) is mainly hydrothermal apatite. (PDF 6 kb)

Electronic supplementary material 3

δ 34S values of galena, sphalerite, pyrite and barite aliquots analyzed in this study. (PDF 80 kb)

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Saintilan, N.J., Spangenberg, J.E., Samankassou, E. et al. A refined genetic model for the Laisvall and Vassbo Mississippi Valley-type sandstone-hosted deposits, Sweden: constraints from paragenetic studies, organic geochemistry, and S, C, N, and Sr isotope data. Miner Deposita 51, 639–664 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-015-0627-7

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