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Geology and market-dependent significance of rare earth element resources

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Abstract

China started to produce rare earth elements (REEs) in the 1980s, and since the mid-1990s, it has become the dominant producer. Rare earth element export quotas first introduced by the Chinese government in the early 2000s were severely reduced in 2010 and 2011. This led to strong government-created disparity between prices within China and the rest of the world. Industrialized countries identified several REEs as strategic metals. Because of rapid price increases of REE outside of China, we have witnessed a world-scale REE exploration rush. The REE resources are concentrated in carbonatite-related deposits, peralkaline igneous rocks, pegmatites, monazite ± apatite veins, ion adsorption clays, placers, and some deep ocean sediments. REE could also be derived as a by-product of phosphate fertilizer production, U processing, mining of Ti-Zr-bearing placers, and exploitation of Olympic Dam subtype iron oxide copper gold (IOCG) deposits. Currently, REEs are produced mostly from carbonatite-related deposits, but ion adsorption clay deposits are an important source of heavy REE (HREE). Small quantities of REE are derived from placer deposits and one peralkaline intrusion-related deposit. The ideal REE development targets would be located in a politically stable jurisdiction with a pro-mining disposition such as Canada and Australia. REE grade, HREE/light REE (LREE) ratio of the mineralization, tonnage, mineralogy, and permissive metallurgy are some of the key technical factors that could be used to screen potential development projects. As REEs are considered strategic metals from economic, national security, and environmental points of view, technical and economic parameters alone are unlikely to be used in REE project development decision-making. Recycling of REE is in its infancy and unless legislated, in the short term, it is not expected to contribute significantly to the supply of REE.

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Acknowledgments

This review was completed under the umbrella of the Targeted Geoscience Initiative 4 spearheaded by Natural Resources Canada. Dr. Suzanne Paradis (Geological Survey of Canada), Kirk Hancock, and Pearce Luck (British Columbia Geological Survey) improved an earlier version of this document. Edits by John R. Goode (J.R. Goode and Associates Metallurgical Consulting) and Georgiana Moldoveanu (Department of Chemical Engineering & Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto) are greatly appreciated. Duncan Mackay (University of Victoria, Canada) and Pearce Luck (British Columbia Geological Survey) helped with drafting. A shorter, precursor version of this document was incorporated into proceedings of the 51st Annual Conference of Metallurgists COM 2012 held in Niagara Falls (Canada) from September 30 to October 3, 2012, Rare Earths 2012, ISBN: 978-1-926872-14-8, pages 15–30.

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    G. J. Simandl

  2. School of Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of Victoria, PO Box 1700 STN CSC, Victoria, V8W 2Y2, Canada

    G. J. Simandl

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Simandl, G.J. Geology and market-dependent significance of rare earth element resources. Miner Deposita 49, 889–904 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-014-0546-z

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