Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Stress in small town and rural law enforcement: Testing the assumptions

  • Published:
American Journal of Criminal Justice Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Sandy and Devine (1978) theorized that small-town and rural police officers experienced Stressors different from their urban counterparts. They delineated four rural stress dimensions: security, social factors, working conditions, and inactivity. Despite the number of hypotheses annunciated by these authors from their exposure to small-town and rural police, they have never been tested. This study is an attempt to rectify this deficiency in the literature by testing their theory/hypotheses with data derived from a survey questionnaire of West Virginia law enforcement officers. The findings of this study lend support for many of the original hypotheses and all four of the dimensions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aaron, J. D. K. (2000). Stress and coping in police officers.Police Quarterly, 3, 438–450.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, W., Swenson, D., & Clay, D. (1995).Stress management for law enforcement officers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anshel, M. H. (2000). A conceptual model and implications for coping with stressful events in police work.Criminal Justice and Behavior, 27, 375–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ayres, R. M., & Flanagan, G. S. (1992).Preventing law enforcement stress: The organization’s role. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartol, C. R. (1982). Psychological characteristics of small-town police officers.Journal of Police Science and Administration, 10, 58–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartol, C. R. (1996). Stress in small-town and rural law enforcement. In T. D. MacDonald, R. A. Wood, & M. A. Pflug (Eds.),Rural criminal justice: Conditions, constraints, & challenges. Salem, WI: Sheffield Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartol, C. R., Bergen, G. T., Volckens, J. S., & Knoras, K. M. (1992). Women in small-town policing: Job performance and stress.Criminal Justice and Behavior, 19, 240–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blum, L. N. (2000).Force under pressure: How cops live and why they die. New York: Lantern Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, L. W., & Piquero, N. L. (1998). Police stress: Does department size matter?Policing: An International journal of Police Strategies & Management, 21, 600–617.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, M. K. (1981).Working the street: Police discretion and the dilemmas of reform. Troy, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. M., & Campbell, E. A. (1994).Stress and policing: Sources and strategies. New York: John Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bureau of Justice Assistance. (1997).Open solicitation ’97: The results. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burke, R. J. (1993). Work-family stress, conflict, coping and burnout in police officers.Stress Medicine, 9, 171–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buzwa, E., Austin, T., & Bannon, J. (1994). The role of selected socio-demographics and job-specific variables in predicting patrol officer job satisfaction: A reexamination ten years later.American Journal of Police, 13, 51–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coman, G., & Evans, B. (1991). Stressors facing Australian police in the 1990s.Police Studies, 14, 153–165.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crank, J. P., & Caldero, M. (1991). The production of occupational stress in mediumsized police agencies: A survey of line officers in eight municipalities.Journal of Criminal Justice, 19, 339–349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crank, J. P., Regoli, R., Hewitt, J. D., & Culbertson, R. G. (1993). An assessment of work stress among police executives.Journal of Criminal Justice, 21, 313–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cullen, F. T., Link, B. G., Travis, L. F., & Lemming, T. (1983). Paradox in policing: A note on perceptions of danger.Journal of Police Science and Administration, 11, 457–462.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, B. J., Coman, G. J., & Stanley, R. O. (1992). The police personality: A behavior and trait anxiety.Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 429–441.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fain, D. B., & McCormick, G. M. (1988). Use of coping mechanisms as a means of stress reduction in north Louisiana.Journal of Police Science and Administration, 16, 21–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finn, P., & Tomz, J. E. (1997).Developing a law enforcement stress program for officers and their families. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hageman, M. (1978). Occupational stress and marital relationships.Journal of Police Science and Administration, 6, 402–412.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hillgren, J. S., Bond, R., & Jones, S. (1976). Primary Stressors in police administration and law enforcement.Journal of Police Science and Administration, 4, 445–449.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horwitz, A. V., McLaughlin, J., & White, H. R. (1997). How the negative and positive aspects of partner relationships affect the mental health of young married people.Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 39, 124–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirkcaldy, B., Cooper, C. L., & Ruffalo, P. (1995). Work stress and health in a sample of U.S. police.Psychological Reports, 76, 700–702.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kowalewski, D., Hall, W., Dolan, J., & Anderson, J. (1984). Police environments and operational codes: A case study of rural setting.Journal of Police Science and Administration, 12, 363–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kroes, W. H. (1985).Society’s victims, the police (2nd ed.). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kroes, W. M., Hurrell, J. J., & Margolis, B. (1974a). Job stress in policemen.Journal of Police Science and Administration, 2, 381–387.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kroes, W. M., Margolis, B., & Hurrell, J. J. (1974b). Job stress in policemen.Journal of Police Science and Administration, 2, 145–155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence, R. A. (1984). Police stress and personality factors: A conceptual model.Journal of Criminal Justice, 12, 247–263.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lotz, R., & Regoli, R. (1977). Police cynicism and professionalism.Human Relations, 30(2), 175–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, J. R., & House, B. (1985). Stress, coping, and alcohol use.Journal of Police Science and Administration, 13, 106–121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mastrofski, S., Ritti, R., & Hoffmaster, D. (1987). Organizational determinants of police discretion: The case of drinking-driving.Journal of Criminal Justice, 15, 387–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maynard, P. E., & Maynard, N. W. (1982). Stress in police families: Some policy implications.Journal of Police Science and Administration, 10, 302–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLaren, S., Gollan, W., & Horwell, C. (1998). Perceived stress as a function of occupation.Psychological Reports, 82, 794.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDonald, T. D., Wood, R. A., & Pflug, M. A. (1996).Rural criminal justice: Conditions, constraints, & challenges. Salem, WI: Sheffield Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meagher, M. S. (1985). Police patrol styles: How pervasive is community variation?Journal of Police Science and Administration, 13, 36–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyers, A. R., Heeron, T., Hingson, R., & Kovenock, D. (1987). Cops and drivers: Police discretion and the enforcement of Maine’s OUI law.Journal of Criminal Justice, 15, 361–368.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morash, M., & Haarr, R. (1995). Gender, workplace problems and stress in policing.Justice Quarterly, 12, 113–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ness, J. J., & Rogers, W. H. (1982). Cooperation: The key to effective rural law enforcement.Law and Order, 30, 87–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oliver, W. M., & Meier, C. A. (2001). The siren’s song: Federalism and the COPS grants.American Journal of Criminal Justice, 25(2), 223–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, B. L. (1992). Job experience and perceived job stress among police, correctional, and probation/parole officers.Criminal Justice and Behavior, 19, 260–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, G. T. (2003). Examining the effects of coping and social support on work and life stress among police officers.Journal of Criminal Justice, 31, 215–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, D. (1990). A study of police discretion in six southern cities.Journal of Police Science and Administration, 17, 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Regoli, R., Crank, J., & Culbertson, R. (1989). Police cynicism, job satisfaction and work relations of police chiefs: An assessment of the influence of department size.Sociological Focus, 22, 161–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reiser, M. (1974). Some organizational stresses on policemen.Journal of Police Science and Administration, 2, 156–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C. R., Richmond, B. O., & Lowe, P. A. (2003).Adult manifest anxiety scale (AMAS). Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roxburgh, S. (1996). Gender differences in work and well being: Effects of exposure and vulnerability.Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 38, 105–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandy, J. P., & Devine, D. A. (1978). Four stress factors unique to rural patrol.The Police Chief, September/October, 42–44.

  • Scott, Y. M. (2004). Stress among rural and small-town patrol officers: A survey of Pennsylvania municipal officers.Police Quarterly, 7(2), 237–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Selye, H. (1974).Stress without distress. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sewell, J. D. (1981). Police stress.FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, April, 9.

  • Sewell, J. D. (1983). The development of a critical life events scale for law enforcement.Journal of Police Science and Administration, 11, 109–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sewell, J. D. (2002). Managing the stress of organizational change.FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 77(3), 14–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, R. A. (1983). Stress as it really exists in a small agency.Law and Order, 31, 87–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singleton, G., & Teahan, J. (1978). Effects of job-related stress on the physical and psychological adjustment of police officers.Journal of Police Science and Administration, 6, 355–361.

    Google Scholar 

  • Storch, J. E., & Panzarella, R. (1996). Police stress: State-trait anxiety relation to occupation and personal Stressors.Journal of Criminal Justice, 24, 99–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Territo, L., & Vetter, H. J. (1983). Stress and police personnel.Journal of Police Science and Administration, 11, 195–207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Terry, W. C. (1981). Police stress: The empirical evidence.Journal of Police Science and Administration, 9, 61–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thoits, P. A. (1986). Social support as coping assistance.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 416–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Toch, H. (2002).Stress in policing. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, R. J., & Marino, J. R. (1983). The police stress process.Journal of Police Science and Administration, 11, 389–394.

    Google Scholar 

  • Violanti, J. M. (1983). Stress patterns in police work: A longitudinal study.Journal of Police Science and Administration, 11, 211–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Violanti, J. M., & Aron, F. (1994). Ranking police Stressors.Psychological Reports, 75, 824–826.

    Google Scholar 

  • Violanti, J. M., & Aron, F. (1995). Police Stressors: Variations in perceptions among police personnel.Journal of Criminal Justice, 23, 287–294.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Violanti, J. M., Marshall, J. R., & Howe, B. (1985). Stress, coping, and alcohol use: The police connection.Journal of Police Science and Administration, 13, 106–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weisheit, R. A., Flacone, D. N., & Wells, L. E. (1999).Crime and policing in rural and small-town America. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wexler, J. G., & Logan, D. D. (1983). Sources of stress among women police officers.Journal of Police Science and Administration, 11, 46–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, J., Lawrence, S., Biggerstaff, C., & Grubb, T. (1985). Factors of stress among police officers.Criminal Justice and Behavior, 12, 111–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, S., & Marino, K. (1983). Job attitudes and police stress: An exploratory study of causation.Journal of Police Science and Administration, 11, 264–274.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, J. S., He, N., & Lovrich, N. (2002). Predicting five dimensions of police officer stress: Looking more deeply into organizational settings for sources of police stress.Police Quarterly, 5, 43–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, J. S., Thurman, Q. T., & He, N. (1999). Sources of job satisfaction among police officers: A test of demographic and work environment models.Justice Quarterly, 16, 153–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. College of Criminal Justice, Sam Houston State University, P.O. Box 2296, 77340, Huntsville, TX

    Willard M. Oliver

  2. American Red Cross, USA

    Cecil “Andy” Meier

Authors
  1. Willard M. Oliver
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Cecil “Andy” Meier
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Willard M. Oliver.

Additional information

This project was supported by cooperative agreement #97-DD-BX-0061 awarded by the Bureau of Justice Assistance, U.S. Department of Justice. Points of view or opinions contained within this document are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. In addition, it should be noted that an earlier version of this paper was presented at the annual meeting of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences, Las Vegas, Nevada, March 9–13, 2004. Finally, the authors would like to thank the three anonymous reviewers for their suggestions and comments on an earlier draft of this manuscript.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Oliver, W.M., Meier, C.“. Stress in small town and rural law enforcement: Testing the assumptions. Am J Crim Just 29, 37–56 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02885703

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02885703

Keywords

Search

Navigation