Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Hyperactivity following postnatal NMDA antagonist treatment: Reversal by D-amphetamine

  • Published:
Neurotoxicity Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Three experiments were performed to study the effects of neonatal administration of glutamate receptor antagonists, on either Day 11 (dizocilpine=MK-801, 3×0.5 mg/kg, s.c., injectioned at 0800, 1600 and 2400 h) or Day 10 (Ketamine, 1×50 mg/kg, s.c., or Ethanol-Low, 1×2.5 mg/kg, or, Ethanol-High, 2×2.5 mg/kg, s.c., with 2-h interval) to male mice pups, on spontaneous motor behavior, habituation to a novel situation, and D-amphetamine-induced activity in the adult animals. Mice administered MK-801 showed initial hypoactivity followed by hyperactivity over the later (20–40 and 40–60 min) periods of testing. Mice administered Ketamine and Ethanol-High similarly displayed an initial hypoactivity followed by hyperactivity over the later time (20–60 min) of testing. Habituation to the novel activity test chambers was reduced drastically in the MK-801 mice compared with vehicletreated mice. Similarly, mice administered Ketamine and Ethanol-High dislayed too drastically reduced habituation behavior. The low dose ofd-amphetamine (0.25 mg/kg) reduced hyperactivity of neonatal MK-801-treated mice, particularly from 30–60 min onwards, and elevated the activity level of the vehicle-treated mice. Similarly, the low dose ofd-amphetamine (0.25 mg/kg) reduced the hyperactivity of neonatally Ketamine-treated and Ethanol-High-treated mice, particularly from 30–60 min onwards, and elevated the activity level of the respective vehicle-treated mice. Fluoro-jade staining per mm2 regional brain tissue of MK-801 mice pups expressed as percent of vehicle mice pups showed also that the extensiveness of staining was markedly greater in the parietal cortex, hippocampus, frontal cortex, and lesser so in the laterodorsal thalamus. Ketamine-treated mice showed cell degeneration mainly in the parietal cortex, whereas the Ethanol-High mice showed marked cell degeneration in both the parietal and laterodorsal cortex. The present findings that encompass a pattern of regional neuronal degeneration, disruptions of spontaneous motor activity, habituation deficits and reversal of hyperactivity by a low dose ofd-amphetamine suggest a model of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder that underlines the intimate role ofN-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in the developing brain.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Archer T, A Fredriksson, G Jonsson, T Lewander, AK Mohammed, SB Ross and U Söderberg (1986) Central noradrenaline depletion antagonizes aspects ofd-amphetamine-induced hyperactivity in the rat.Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 88, 141–146.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Archer T, T Palomo and A Frediksson (2002a) Functional deficits following neonatal dopamine depletion and isolation housing: circular water maze acquisition under pre-exposure conditions and motor activity.Neurotoxicity Res. 4, 503–522.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Archer T, T Palomo and A Frediksson (2002b) Neonatal 6-hydroxydopamine-induced hypo/hyperactivity: blockade by dopamine reuptake inhibitors and effect of acuted-amphetamine.Neurotoxicity Res. 4, 247–266.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley RA (1977) A review of stimulant drug research with hyperactive children.J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 18, 137–165.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley RA (1997) Behavioural inhibition, sustained attention and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD.Psychol. Bull. 121, 65–94.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley RA, M Fischer, CS Edelbrock and L Smallish (1990) The adolescent outcome of hyperactive children diagnosed by research criteria. I. An 8-year prospective follow-up study.J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 29, 546–557.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley RA, GJ DuPaul and MB McMurray (1991) Attention deficit disorder with and without hyperactivity: clinical response to three different doses of methylphenidate.Pediatrics 87, 519–531.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berquin PC, JN Giedd, LK Jacobsen, SD Hamburger, AL Krain, JL Rapoport and FX Castellanos (1998) Cerebellum in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder—a morphometric MRI study.Neurology 50, 1087–1093.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Biederrman J and T Spencer (1999) Attention-defict/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a noradrenergic disorder.Biol. Psychiatry 46, 1234–1242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biederrman J, RJ Baldessarini, V Wright, D Knee and JS Harmatz (1989) A double-blind placebo controlled study desipramine in the treatment of ADD I. Efficacy.J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 28, 777–784.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biederrman J, J Newcorn and S Sprich (1991) Comorbidity of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with conduct, depressive, anxiety, and other disorders.Am. J. Psychiatry 148, 564–577.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blaze CA, RE Holland and AL Grant (1988) Gas exchange during xylazine-ketamine anesthesia in neonatal calves.Veterinary Surg. 17, 155–159.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bymaster FP, JS Katner, DL Nelson, SK Hemrick-Luecke, PG Threlkeld, JH Heiligenstein, SM Morin, DR Gehlert and KW Perry (2002) Atomoxetine increases extracellular levels of norepinephrine and dopamine in prefrontal cortex of rat: a potential mechanism for efficacy in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder.Neuropsychopharmacology 27, 699–711.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Byrnes ML, JN Reynolds and JF Brien (2001) Effect of prenatal ethanol exposure during the brain growth spurt of the guinea pig.Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 23, 355–364.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos FX, J Elia, MJ Kruesi, WL Marsh, CS Gulotta, WZ Potter, GF Ritchie, SD Hanburger and JL Rapoport (1996a) Cerebrospinal fluid homovanillic acid predicts behavioural response to stimulants in 45 boys with attention deficit/hyperactivity tivity disorder.Neuropsychopharmacology 14, 125–137.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos FX, JN Giedd, WL Marsh, SD Hamburger, AC Vaituzis, DP Dickstein, SE Sarfatti, YC Vauss, JW Snell, N Lange, D Kaysen, AL Krain, GF Ritchie, JC Rajapakse and JL Rapoprt (1996b) Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 53, 607–616.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen WA, SE Parnell and JR West (1999) Early postnatal alcohol exposure produced long-term deficits in brain weight, but not the number of neurons in the locus coeruleus.Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res. 118, 33–38.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clarren SK and DW Smith (1978) The fetal alcohol syndrome.N. Engl. J. Med. 298, 1063–1067.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Danielsson BR, A Fredriksson, L Dahlgren, AT Gardlund, L Olsson, LL Dencker and T Archer (1993) Behavioural effects of prenatal metallic mercury inhalation exposure in rats.Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 15, 391–396.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Danneman PJ and TD Mandrell (1997) Evaluation of five agents/methods for anesthesia of neonatal rats.Lab. Anim. Sci. 47, 386–395.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davison AN and J Dobbing (1968)Applied Neurochemistry (Blackwell: Oxford), pp 253–316.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dougherty DD, AA Bonab, TJ Spencer, SL Rauch, BK Madras and AJ Fischman (1999) Dopamine transport density in patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.Lancet 354, 2132–2133.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Downey KK, FW Stelson, OF Pomerleau and B Giordani (1997) Adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: psychological test profiles in a clinical population.J. Nerv. Ment. Disord. 185, 32–38.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dresel S, J Krause, K-H Krause, C LaFougere, K Brinkbaumer, HF Kung, K Hahn and K Tatsch (2000) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: binding of [99Tc]TRODAT-1 to the dopamine transporter before and after methylphenidate.Eur. J. Nucl. Med. 27, 1518–1524.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eckardt MJ, SE File, GL Gessa, KA Grant, C Guerri, PL Hoffman, H Kalant, GF Koob, TK Li and B Tabakoff (1998) Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system.Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res. 22, 998–1040.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elia J, BG Borcheding, JL Rapoport and CS Keysor (1991) Methylphenidate and dextroamphetamine treatments of hyperactivity: are there true responders?Psychiatry Res. 36, 141–155.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elia J, P Ambrosini and JL Rapoport (1999) Treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.N. Engl. J. Med. 340, 780–788.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eng M, JJ Bonica, TJ Akamatsu, PU Berges and K Ueland (1975) Respiratory depression in newborn monkeys at Caesarian section following ketamine administration.Br. J. Anaesth. 47, 917–921.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ernst M, AJ Zametkin, JA Matochik, D Pascualvaca, PH Jons and RM Cohen (1999) High midbrain [18F]DOPA accumulation in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.Am. J. Psychiatry 156, 1209–1215.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Famy C, AP Streissguth and AS Unis (1998) Mental illness in adults with fetal alcohol syndrome or fetal alcohol effects.Am. J. Psychiatry 155, 552–554.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Filipek PA, M Semrud-Clikeman, RJ Steingard, PF Renshaw, DN Kennedy and J Biederman (1997) Volumetric MRI analysis compating attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and normal controls.Neurology 48, 589–601.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fredriksson A and T Archer (2002) Functional alteration by NMDA antagonist: effects of L-Dopa, neuroleptic drugs and postnatal administration.Amino Acids 23(1–3), 111–132.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fredriksson A, L Dahlgren, B Danielsson, P Eriksson, LL Dencker and T Archer (1992) Behavioural effects of neonatal metallic mercury exposure in rats.Toxicology 74(2–3), 151–160.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fredriksson A, N Schroder, P Eriksson, I Izquierdo and T Archer (1999) Neonatal iron exposure induces neurobehavioural dysfunctions in adult mice.Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 159, 25–30.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fredriksson A, N Schroder, P, Eriksson, I Izquierdo and T Archer (2000) Maze learning and motor activity deficits in adult mice induced by iron exposure during a critical postnatal period.Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res. 119, 65–74.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fredriksson A, N Schroder, P Eriksson, I Izquierdo and T Archer (2001) Neonatal iron potentiates adult MPTP-induced neurode-generative and functional deficits.Parkinsonism Relat. Disord. 7, 97–105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fredriksson A, N Schroder and T Archer (2003) Neurobehavioural deficits following postnatal iron overload: I Spontaneous motor activity.Neurotoxicity Res. 5(1–2), 53–76.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goodyear P and GW Hynd (1992) Attention-deficit disorder with (ADD/H) and without (ADD/WO) hyperactivity: behavioral and neuropsychological differentiation.J. Clin. Child Psychol. 21, 273–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gorter JA and JP de Bruin (1992) Chronic neonatal MK-801 treatment results in impairment of spatial learning in the adult rat.Brain Res. 580, 12–17.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greenhill L (1995) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the stimulants.Child Adolesc. Psychiatr. Clin. North. Am. 4, 123–168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guerri C (1998) Neuroanatomical and neurophysiological mechanisms involved in central nervous system dysfunctions induced by prenatal alcohol exposure.Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res. 22, 304–312.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hodgkinson R, GF Marx, SS Kim and M Miclat (1977) Neonatal neurobehavioural tests following vaginal delivery under ketamine, thiopental, and extradural anesthesia.Anesth. Analg. 56, 584A.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hodgkinson R, M Bhatt, SS Kim, G Grewal and GF Marx (1978a) Neonatal neurobehavioral tests following cesarian section under general and spinal anesthesia.Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 132, 670–674.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hodgkinson R, m Bhatt and CN Wang (1978b) Double-blind comparison of the neurobehaviour of neonates following the administration of different doses of meperidine to the mother.Can. Anaesth. Soc. J. 25, 405–411.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ikonomidou C, F Bosch, M Miksa, P Bittigau, J Vockler, K Dikranian, T Tenkova, V Stefovska and JW Olney (1999) Blockade of NMDA receptors and apoptofic neurodegeneration in the developing brain.Science 283, 70–74.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ikonomidou C, P Bittigau, MJ Ishimaru, DF Wozniak, C Koch, K Genz, MT Price, V Stefovska, F Hörster, T Tenkova, K Dikranian and JW Olney (2000) Ethanol-induced apoptotic neurodegeneration and fetal alcohol syndrome.Science 287, 1056–1060.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ikonomidou C, P Bittigau, C Koch, K Genz, MT Price, F Hörster, U Felderhoff-Mueser, T Tenkova, K Dikranian and JW Olney (2001) Neurotransmitters and apoptosis in the developing brain.Biochem. Pharmacol. 62, 401–405.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ishimaru MJ, C Ikonomidou, TI Tenkova, TC Der, K Dikranian, MA Sesma and JW Olney (1999) Distinguishing excitotic from apoptotic neurodegeneration in the developing rat brain.J. Comp. Neurol. 408, 461–476.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kalat JW (2001)Biological Psychology (Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. Belmont CA).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirk RE (1995)Experimental Design. Procedures in Behavioural Science. (Brooks/Cole Inc., Belmont CA).

    Google Scholar 

  • Krause K-H, SH Dresel, J Krause, HF Kung and K Tatsch (2000) Increased striatal dopamine transporter in acult patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: effects of methylphenidate as measured by single photon emission computed tomography.Neurosci. Lett. 285, 107–110.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lafond JS, JC Fouron and H Bard (1987) Cardiovascular status during ketamine anesthesia in the fetal lamb.Biol. Neonate 52, 279–284.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lou HC, L Henricksen, P Bruhn, H Borner and JB Nielsen (1989) Striatal dysfunction in attention deficit and hyperkinetic disorder.Arch. Neurol. 46, 48–52.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lynam DR (1996) Early identification of chronic offenders: Who is the fledgling psychopath?Psychol. Bull. 120, 209–234.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lynam DR (1998) Early identification of the fledgling psychopath: locating the psychopathic child in the current nomenclature.J. Abnorm. Psychol. 107, 566–575.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Madras B (2002) Brain imaging of the dopamine transporter in ADHD.Behav. Brain Res. 130, 57–63.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mariani MA and RA Barkley (1997) Neuropsychological and academic functioning in preschool boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.Dev. Psychol. 13, 111–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manuzza S, RG Klein, A Bessler, P Malloy and M LaPadula (1993) Adult outcome of hyperactive boys. Educational achievement, occupational rank, and psychiatric status.Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 50, 565–576.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manuzza S, RG Klein, A Bessler, P Malloy and M LaPadula (1998) Adult psychiatric status of hyperactive boys grown up.Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 55, 493–498.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mickley GA, DR Remmers-Roeber, C Crouse and R Peluso (2000) Ketamine blocks a taste recognition memory in fetal rats.Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 67, 575–581.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mickley GA, DR Remmers-Roeber, CM Dengler, CL Kenmuir and C Crouse (2001) Paradoxical effects of ketamine on the memory of fetuses of different ages.Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res. 127, 71–76.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moghaddam B, B Adams, A Verma and D Daly (1997) Activation of glutamatergic neurotransmission by ketamine: a novel step in the pathway from NMDA receptor blockade to dopaminergic and cognitive disruptions associated with the prefrontal cortex.J. Neurosci. 17, 2921–2927.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mostofsky SH, AG Lasker, LE Cutting, MB Denckla and DS Zee (2001) Oculomotor abnormalities in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a preliminary study.Neurology 57, 423–430.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nieoullon A (2002) Dopamine and the regulation of cognition and attention.Prog. Neurobiol. 67, 53–83.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Olney JW, J Labruyere and MT Price (1989) Pathological changes induced in cerebrocortical neurons by phencyclidine and related drugs.Science 244, 1360–1362.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Olney JW, DF Wozniak, V Jevtovic-Todorovic and C Ikonomidou (1991) NMDA antagonist neurotoxicity: mechanism and prevention.Science 254, 1515–1518.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Olney JW, NB Farber, DF Wozniak, V Jevtovic-Todorovic and C Ikonomidou (2000) Environmental agents that have the potential to trigger massive apoptotic neurodegeneration in the developing brain.Environ. Health Prospect. 108 (Suppl 3), 383–388.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Olney JW, T Tenkova, K Dikranian, YQ Qin, J Labruyere and C Ikonomidou (2002) Ethanol-induced apoptotic neurodegeneration in the developing C57BL/6 mouse brain.Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res 133(2), 115–126.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Raol YH, DR Lynch and AR Brooks-Kayal (2001) Role of excitatory amino acids in developmental epilepsies.Ment. Retard. Dev. Disabil. Res. Rev. 7, 254–260.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rapport MD, KM Chung, G Shore, CB Denney and P Isaacs (2000) Upgrading the science and technology of assessment and diagnosis: laboratory and clinic-based assessment of children with ADHD.J. Clin. Child Psychol. 29, 555–568.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Riva D and C Giorgi (2000) The cerebellum contributes to higher functions during development: evidence from: series of children surgically treated for posterior fossa tumours.Brain 123, 1051–1061.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roegge CS, BW Seo, KM Crofton and SL Schantz (2000) Gestation-lactation exposure to aroclor 1254 impairs radial-arm maze performance in male rats.Toxicol. Sci. 57, 121–130.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rubia K, J Oosterlaan, JA Sergeant, D Brandeis and T Leeuwen (1998) Inhibitory dysfunction in hyperactive boys.Behav. Brain Res. 94, 25–32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rubia K, S Overmeyer, E Taylor, M Brammer, SC Williams, A Simmons and ET Bullmore (1999) Hypofrontality in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder during higher-order motor control: a study with functional MRI.Am. J. Psychiatr. 156, 891–896.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schmued LC and KJ Hopkins (2000) Fluoro-jade: novel fluorochromes for detecting toxicant induced neuronal degeneration.Toxicol. Pathol. 28, 91–99.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schmued LC, C Albertson and W Slikker (1997) Fluoro-jade: a novel fluorochrome for the sensitive and reliable histochemical localization of neuronal degeneration.Brain Res. 751, 37–46.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schweitzer JB, TL Faber, ST Grafton, LE Tune, JM Hoffman and CD Kilts (2000) Alterations in the functional anatomy of working memory in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.Am. J. Psychiatr. 157, 278–280.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shaywitz BA, JH Klopper, RD Yager and JW Gordon (1976) Paradoxical response to amphetamine in developing rats treated with 6-hydroxydopamine.Nature 261, 153–155.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shaywitz BA, JW Gordon, JH Klopper and DA Zelterman (1977) The effect of 6-hydroxydopamine on habituation of activity in the developing rat pup.Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 6, 391–396.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Solanto MV (1998) Neuropsychopharmacological mechanisms of stimulant drug action in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a review and integration.Behav. Brain Res. 94, 127–152.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Solanto MV (2002) Dopamine dysfunction in AD/HD: integrating clinical and basic science research.Behav. Brain Res. 130, 65–71.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer T, T Wilens, J Biederman, SV Faraone, S Ablon and K Lapey (1995) A double-blind, crossover comparison of methylphenidate and placebo in adults with childhood-onset attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 52, 434–443.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer T, J Biederman, T Wilens, M Harding, D O'Donnell and S Griffin (1996) Pharmacotherapy of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder across the life cycle.J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 35, 409–432.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer T, J Biederman, T Wilens, J Prince, M Hatch, J Jones, M Harding, SV Faraone and L Seidman (1998) Effectiveness and tolerability of atomoxetine in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.Am. J. Psychiatry 155, 693–695.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer T, J Biederman, J Heiligenstein, T Wilens, D Faries, J Prince, SV Faraone, J Rea, J Witcher and S Zervas (2001) An open-label, dose-ranging study of atomoxetine in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol. 11, 251–265.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Swanson JM, JA Sergeant, E Taylor, EJS Sonuga-Barke, PS Jensen and DP Cantwell (1998) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and hyperkynetic disorder.Lancet 351, 329–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swanson JM, P Flodman, J Kennedy, MA Spence, R Moyzis, S Schuck, M Murias, J Moriaty, C Barr, M Smith and M Posner (2000) Dopamine genes and ADHD.Neurol. Biobehav. Rev. 24, 21–25.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Szatmari P (1992) The edidemiology of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.Child Adolesc. Psychiatry Clin. North Am. 1, 361–371.

    Google Scholar 

  • Viggiano D, G Grammatikopoulos and A Sadile (2002) A morphometric evidence for a hyperfunctioning mesolimbic system in an animal model of ADHD.Behav. Brain Res. 130, 181–189.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow ND, G Wang, JS Fowler, SJ Gatley, J Logan, Y-S Ding, R Hitzemann and N Pappas (1998) Dopamine transporter occupancies in the human brain induced by therapeutic doses of oral methylphenidate.Am. J. Psychiatry 155, 1325–1331.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow ND, G Wang, JS Fowler, J Logan, M Gerasimov, L Maynard, Y-S Ding, SJ Gatley, A Gifford and D Franceschi (2001) Therapeutic doses of oral methylphenidate significantly increase extracellular dopamine in the human brain.J. Neurosci. 21, RC121, 1–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss G and L Hechtman (1979) The hyperactive child syndrome.Science 205, 1348–1354.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • West JR, CR Goodlett, DJ Bonthius and DR Pierce (1989) Manipulating peak blood alcohol concentrations in neonatal rats: review of an animal model for alcohol-related developmental effects.Neurotoxicology 10, 347–365.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilens TE, J Biederman, J Prince, TJ Spencer, SV Faraone, R Warburton, D Schleifer, M Harding, C Linehan and D Geller (1996) Six-week, double-blind, placebo controlled study of desipramine for adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.Am. J. Psychiatry 153, 1147–1153.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilens TE and TJ Spencer (2000) The stimulants revisited.Child Adolesc. Clin. North Am. 9, 573–603.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zametkin AJ, TE Nordahl, M Gross, AC King, WE Semple, J Rumsey, S Hamburger and RM Cohen (1990) Cerebral glucose metabolism in adults with hyperactivity of childhood onset.N. Engl. J. Med. 323, 1361–1366.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Neuroscience & Psychiatry, University of Uppsala, Ulleråker, SE-750 17, Uppsala, Sweden

    Anders Fredriksson

  2. Department of Psychology, University of Göteborg, Box 500, SE-430 05, Göteborg, Sweden

    Trevor Archer

Authors
  1. Anders Fredriksson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Trevor Archer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Trevor Archer.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Fredriksson, A., Archer, T. Hyperactivity following postnatal NMDA antagonist treatment: Reversal by D-amphetamine. neurotox res 5, 549–564 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03033165

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03033165

Keywords

Search

Navigation