Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Perchlorate as an environmental contaminant

  • Review Articles
  • Published:
Environmental Science and Pollution Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Perchlorate anion (ClO4 −) has been found in drinking water supplies throughout the southwestern United States. It is primarily associated with releases of ammonium perchlorate by defense contractors, military operations, and aerospace programs. Ammonium perchlorate is used as a solid oxidant in missile and rocket propulsion systems. Traces of perchlorate are found in Chile saltpeter, but the use of such fertilizer has not been associated with large scale contamination. Although it is a strong oxidant, perchlorate anion is very persistent in the environment due to the high activation energy associated with its reduction. At high enough concentrations, perchlorate can affect thyroid gland functions, where it is mistakenly taken up in place of iodide. A safe daily exposure has not yet been set, but is expected to be released in 2002. Perchlorate is measured in environmental samples primarily by ion chromatography. It can be removed by anion exchange or membrane filtration. It is destroyed by some biological and chemical processes. The environmental occurrence, toxicity, analytical chemistry, and remediative approaches are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Urbansky ET (1998): Perchlorate chemistry: Implications for analysis and remediation. Biorem J 2, 81–95

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Espenson JH (2000): The problem and perversity of perchlorate. In: Perchlorate in the Environment, Urbansky ET (ed) Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York, NY, Chapter 1

    Google Scholar 

  3. Abu-Omar MM, McPherson LD, Arias J, Béreau VM (2000): Clean and efficient catalytic reduction of perchlorate. Angew Chem Int Ed 39, 4310–4313

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Earley JE, Sr., Tofan DC, Amadei GA (2000): Reduction of perchlorate ion by titanous ions in ethanolic solution. In: Perchlorate in the Environment, Urbansky ET (ed) Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York, NY, Chapter 9

    Google Scholar 

  5. Burke PJ, Henrick K, McMillin DR (1982): Crystal and molecular structures of bis(4, 4, 6, 6-tetramethyl-2, 2′-bipyridyl) copper(I) perchlorate, bis(4, 4, 6, 6-tetramethyl-2, 2′-bipyridyl) copper(II) diperchlorate, and bis(4, 4, 6, 6-tetramethyl-2, 2′bipyridyl) copper(II) diperchlorate dihydrate. A search for copper(II) and copper(I) complexes with a common ligand environment. Inorg Chem 21, 1881–1886

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. US Environmental Protection Agency (1998): Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List. Washington, DC, Doc No EPA/600/F-98/002

  7. Gullick RW, LeChevallier MW, Barhorst TS (2001): Occurrence of perchlorate in drinking water sources. J Am Water Works Assoc 93 (1) 66–77

    Google Scholar 

  8. Ericksen GE (1983): The Chilean nitrate deposits. Am Sci 71, 366–374

    Google Scholar 

  9. Schilt AA (1979): Perchloric Acid and Perchlorates. GFS Chemicals, Inc., Columbus, OH

    Google Scholar 

  10. Urbansky ET, Brown SK, Magnuson ML, Kelty CA (2001): Perchlorate levels in samples of sodium nitrate fertilizer derived from Chilean caliche. Environ Pollut 112, 299–302

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Lauterbach AR (2001): Reduction of perchlorate levels of sodium and potassium nitrates derived from natural caliche ore. Abstract Paper — Am Chem Soc Natl Meet, 222nd, AGRO-47

  12. Susarla S, Collette TW, Garrison AW, Wolfe NL, McCutcheon SC (1999): Perchlorate identification in fertilizers. Environ Sci Technol 33, 3469–3472

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Eldridge JE, Tsui DT, Mattie DR, Crown J, Scott R (1999): Perchlorate in Fertilizers. US Air Force Research Laboratories, Human Effectiveness Directorate, Deployment and Sustainment Division, Operational Toxicology Branch, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, Doc No AFRL-HE-WP-TR-2000-0037

  14. Urbansky ET, Magnuson ML, Kelty CA, Gu B, Brown GM (2000): Comment on ‘Perchlorate identification in fertilizers’ and the subsequent addition/correction. Environ Sci Technol 34, 4452–4453

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Urbansky ET, Collette TW, Robarge WP, Hall WL, Skillen JM, Kane PF (2001): Survey of Fertilizers and Related Materials for Perchlorate (C1O4 −): Final Report. US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, Doc No EPA/ 600/R-01/049

  16. Wolff J (1998): Perchlorate and the thyroid gland. Pharmacol Rev 50, 89–105

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Clark JJJ (2000): Toxicology of perchlorate. In: Perchlorate in the Environment, Urbansky ET (ed) Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York, NY, Chapter 3

    Google Scholar 

  18. Li Z, Xiao LF, Byrd D, Deyhle GM, Sesser DE, Skeels MR, Lamm SH (2000): Neonatal thyroxine level and perchlorate in drinking water. J Occup Environ Med 42, 200–205

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Lamm SH, Braverman LE, Xiao LF, Richman K, Pino S, Howearth G (1999): Thyroid health status of ammonium perchlorate workers: a cross-sectional occupational health study. J Occup Environ Med 41, 248–260

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Lawrence JE, Lamm SH, Pino S, Richman K, Braverman LE (2000): The effect of short-term low-dose perchlorate on various aspects of thyroid function. Thyroid 10, 659–663

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Crump C, Michaud P, T_llez R, Reyes C, Gonzalez G, Montgomery EL, Crump KS, Lobo G, Becerra C, Gibbs JP (2000): Does perchlorate in drinking water affect thyroid function in newborns or school-age children? J Occup Environ Med 42, 603–612

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. van Dam EWCM, Prummel MF, Wiersinga WM, Nikkeis RE (1993): Treatment of amiodarone-induced hypothyroidism with potassium perchlorate. Netherlands J Med 42, 21–24

    Google Scholar 

  23. Newnham HH, Topliss DJ, Le Grand BA, Chosich N, Harper RW, Stockigt JR (1988): Amiodarone-induced hyperthyroidism: assessment of the predictive value of biochemical testing and response to combined therapy using propylthiouracil and potassium perchlorate. Aust NZ J Med 18, 37–44

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Martino E, Aghini-Lombardi F, Maiotti S, Lenziardi M, Baschieri L, Braverman LE, Pinchera A (1986): Treatment of amiodarone associated thyrotoxicosis by simultaneous administration of potassium perchlorate and methimazole. J Endocrinol Invest 9, 201–207

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. European Union (1982): EC Directive Relating to the Quality of Water Intended for Human Consumption. Office of Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg, Doc No 80/778/EEC

    Google Scholar 

  26. Okamoto HS, Rishi DK, Steeber WR, Baumann FJ, Kusum Perera S (1999): Using ion chromatography to detect perchlorate. J Am Water Works Assoc 91 (10) 73–84

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Hautman DP, Munch DJ, Eaton AD, Haghani AW (1999): Method 314.0. Determination of Perchlorate in Drinking Water Using Ion Chromatography, Revision 1. US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, Doc No EPA/815/ B-99/003

  28. US Environmental Protection Agency (2000): Method 9058. Determination of perchlorate using ion chromatography with chemical suppression conductivity detection. Washington, DC

  29. Jackson PE, Laikhtman M, Rohrer JS (1999): Determination of trace level perchlorate in drinking water and ground water by ion chromatography. J Chromatogr A 850, 131–135

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Jackson PE, Gokhale S, Rohrer JS (2000): Recent developments in the analysis of perchlorate using ion chromatography. In: Perchlorate in the Environment, Urbansky ET (ed) Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York, NY, Chapter 5

    Google Scholar 

  31. De Borba BM, Rowe DW (2000): Determination of tracelevel perchlorate according to US EPA Method 314.0 using polyvinyl alochol gel resin. Am Lab 33 (9) 22–24

    Google Scholar 

  32. Urbansky ET (2000): Quantitation of perchlorate ion: Practices and advances applied to the analysis of common matrices. Crit Rev Anal Chem 30, 311–343

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Ellington JJ, Evans JJ (2000): Determination of perchlorate at parts-per-billion levels in plants by ion chromatography. J Chromatogr A 898, 193–199

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Ellington JJ, Wolfe NL, Garrison AW, Evans JJ, Avants JK, Teng Q (2001): Determination of perchlorate in tobacco plants and tobacco products. Environ Sci Technol 35, 3213–3218

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Collette TW, Robarge WP, Urbansky ET (2001): Ion chromatographic determination of perchlorate: analysis of fertilizers and related materials. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH, Doc No EPA/600/R-01/026

    Google Scholar 

  36. Urbansky ET, Collette TW (2001): Comparison and evaluation of laboratory performance on a method for the determination of perchlorate in fertilizers. J Environ Monit 3, 454–462

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. De Borba BM, Urbansky ET (2002): Performance of poly(vinyl)alcohol gel columns on the ion Chromatographic determination of perchlorate in fertilizers. J Environ Monit 4(1) 149–155

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Urbansky ET, Magnuson ML (2000): Sensitivity and selectivity enhancement in perchlorate anion quantitation using complexation-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry. In: Perchlorate in the Environment, Urbansky ET (ed) Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York, NY, Chapter 8

    Google Scholar 

  39. Urbansky ET, Magnuson ML, Freeman D, Jelks C (1999): Quantitation of perchlorate ion by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) using stable association complexes with organic cations and bases to enhance selectivity. J Anal At Spectrom 14, 1861–1866

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Urbansky ET, Gu B, Magnuson ML, Brown GM, Kelty CA (2000): Survey of bottled waters for perchlorate by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) and ion chromatography (IC). J Sci Food Agric 80, 1798–1804

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Magnuson ML, Urbansky ET, Kelty CA (2000): Determination of perchlorate at trace levels in drinking water by ionpair extraction with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Anal Chem 72, 25–29

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Magnuson ML, Urbansky ET, Kelty CA (2000): Microscale extraction of perchlorate in drinking water by ion-pair extraction with low-level detection by electrospray mass spectrometry. Talanta 52, 285–291

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Koester CJ, Beller HR, Halden RU (2000): Analysis of perchlorate in groundwater by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry. Environ Sci Technol 34, 1862–1864

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Handy R, Barnett DA, Purves RW, Horlick G, Guevremont R (2000): Determination of nanomolar perchlorate in water by ESI-FAIMS-MS. J Anal At Spectrom 15, 907–911

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Ells B, Barnett DA, W, PR, Guevremont R (2000): Trace level determination of perchlorate in water matrices and human urine using ESI-FAIMS-MS. J Environ Monit 2, 393–397

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Susarla S, Collette TW, Garrison AW, Wolfe NL, McCutcheon SC (2000): Correction/Addition for ‘Perchlorate identification in fertilizers’. Environ Sci Technol 34, 224

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Williams TL, Martin RB, Collette TW (2001): Raman spectroscopic analysis of fertilizers and plant tissue for perchlorate. Appl Spectrosc 55, 967–983

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Ader M, Coleman ML, Doyle SP, Stroud M, Wakelin D (2001): Methods for the stable isotopic analysis of chlorine in chlorate and perchlorate compounds. Anal Chem 73, 4946–4950

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Logan BE (2001): Assessing the outlook for perchlorate remediation. Environ Sci Technol 35, 482A-487A

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Urbansky ET, Schock MR (1999): Issues associated with managing the risks of perchlorate in the drinking water. J Environ Manage 56, 79–95

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Logan BE (1998): A review of chlorateand perchlorate-respiring microorganisms. Biorem J 2, 69–79

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Coates JD, Michaelidou U, Bruce RA, O’Connor SM, Crespi JN, Achenbach LA (1999): The ubiquity and diversity of dissimilatory (per)chlorate-reducing bacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol 65, 5234–5241

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Coates JD, Michaelidou U, O’Connor SM, Bruce RA, Achenbach LA (2000): The diverse microbiology of (per)chlorate reduction. In: Perchlorate in the Environment, Urbansky ET (ed) Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York, NY, Chapter 24

    Google Scholar 

  54. Kim K, Logan BE (2001): Microbial reduction of perchlorate in pure and mixed culture packed-bed bioreactors. Wat Res 35, 3071–3076

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Miller JP, Logan BE (2000): Sustained perchlorate degradation in an autotrophic, gas-phase, packed-bed reactor. Environ Sci Technol 34, 3018–3022

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Herman DC, Frankenberger WT, Jr. (1999): Bacterial reduction of perchlorate and nitrate in water. J Environ Qual 28, 1018–1024

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Okeke BC, Giblin T, Frankenberger WF, Jr. (2001): Reduction of perchlorate and nitrate by salt tolerant bacteria. Environ Pollut 118, 357–363

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Logan BE, Wu J, Unz RF (2001): Biological perchlorate reduction in high-salinity solutions. Wat Res 35, 3034–3038

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Nzengung VA, Wang C, Harvey G (1999): Plant-mediated transformation of perchlorate into chloride. Environ Sci Technol 33, 1470–1478

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Nzengung VA, Wang C (2000): Influences on phytoremediation of perchlorate-contaminated water. In: Perchlorate in the Environment, Urbansky ET (ed) Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York, NY, Chapter 21

    Google Scholar 

  61. Susarla S, Bacchus ST, Wolfe NL, McCutcheon SC (1999): Phytotransformation of perchlorate and identification of metabolic products inMyriophyllum aquaticum. Int J Phytorem 1, 97–107

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Susarla S, Bacchus ST, Wolfe NL, McCutcheon SC (1999): Phytotransformation of perchlorate using parrot-feather. Soil Groundwater Cleanup February/March, 20

  63. Susarla S, Bacchus ST, McCutcheon SC, Wolfe NL (1999): Potential Species for Phytoremediation of Perchlorate. US Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, GA, Doc No EPA/ 600/R-99/069

    Google Scholar 

  64. Brown GM, Bonnesen PV, Moyer BA, Gu B, Alexandratos SD, Ober R, Dale JA, Plant S (2000): The design of selective resins for the removal of pertechnetate and perchlorate from groundwater. In: Perchlorate in the Environment, Urbansky ET (ed) Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York, NY, Chapter 15

    Google Scholar 

  65. Gu B, Brown GM, Maya L, Lance MJ, Moyer BA (2001): Regeneration of perchlorate (ClO4 −)-loaded anion exchange resins by a novel tetrachloroferrate (FeCl4 −) displacement technique. Environ Sci Technol 35, 3363–3368

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Batista JR, X, MF, Vieira AR (2000): The removal of perchlorate waters using ion-exchange resins. In: Perchlorate in the Environment, Urbansky ET (ed) Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York, NY, Chapter 13

    Google Scholar 

  67. Venkatesh KR, Klara SM, Jennings DL, Wagner NJ (2000): Removal and destruction of perchlorate and other anions from ground water using the ISEP+ system. In: Perchlorate in the Environment, Urbansky ET (ed) Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York, NY, Chapter 14

    Google Scholar 

  68. Taylor JS, Wiesner M (1999): Membranes. In: Water Quality and Treatment: A Handbook of Community Water Supplies, Letterman RD (ed) McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, Chapter 11

    Google Scholar 

  69. Smith PN, Theodorakis CW, Anderson TA, Kendall RJ (2001): Preliminary assessment of perchlorate in ecological receptors at the Longhorn Army Ammunition Plant (LHAAP), Karnack, Texas. Ecotoxicology 10, 305–313

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Water Supply and Water Resources Division, 26 West Martin Luther King Drive, 45268, Cincinnati, OH

    Edward Todd Urbansky

Authors
  1. Edward Todd Urbansky
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Edward Todd Urbansky.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Urbansky, E.T. Perchlorate as an environmental contaminant. Environ Sci & Potlut Res 9, 187–192 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02987487

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02987487

Keywords

Search

Navigation