Summary
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a member of the herpes virus group. Infection results in a variety of disorders which depend largely on the immune status of the host. A well known property of CMV is that after primary infection the virus persists in the body of the host resulting in latency. Severe immunodepression or immunodeficiency can cause reactivation of the virus from its latent state, leading to endogenous reinfection. In contrast to other herpes viruses, such as herpes simplex virus which persists in neurons, and Epstein Barr virus which persists in B lymphocytes, little is known about the localization of latent CMV. In order to obtain more insight in the organ or cell type serving as a reservoir for latent CMV, it is important to know more about the course of natural infection and the cells and organs involved. When more information is available about the localization of latent virus, studies concerning the physical state of viral DNA or the extent of viral transcription and/or translation will follow in the near future. In this review some properties of the epidemiology and transmission of human CMV, as well as data about acute infection will be given. In addition, some characteristics of the localization of latent CMV and the physical state of the virus will be discussed. Where necessary, particularly regarding insight into CMV-host interactions, knowledge of animal, particularly murine, rat and guinea pig CMV infections, will be discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adler SP (1983) Transfusion-associated cytomegalovirus infections. Rev Infect Dis 5: 977–993
Adler SP (1986a) Cytomgalovirus infection in parents of children at day-care centers. N Engl J Med 315: 1164–1165
Adler SP (1986b) Molecular epidemiology of cytomegalovirus evidence for viral transmission to parents from children infected at a day-care center. Pediatr Infect Dis J 5: 315–318
Adler SP (1990) New insights into human cytomegaloviral infections. Prog Med Virol 37: 136–155
Alcami A, Smith GL (1992) A soluble receptor for interleukin-1β encoded by vaccinia virus: a novel mechanism of virus modulation of the host response to infection. Cell 71: 153–167
Bale JF, O'Neil ME (1989) Detection of murine cytomegalovirus DNA in circulating leukocytes harvested during acute infection of mice. J Virol 63: 2667–2673
Bale JF, O'Neil ME, Giller R, Perlman S, Koszinowski V (1987) Murine cytome-galovirus genomic material in marrow cells: relation to altered leukocyte counts during sublethal infection in mice. J Infect Dis 155: 207–212
Banks TA, Rouse BT (1992) Herpesviruses: Immune escape artists? Clin Infect Dis 14: 933–941
Beck S, Barrell BG (1988) Human cytomegalovirus encodes a glycoprotein homologous to MHC class I antigens. Nature 331: 269–271
Beneke JS, Tegtmeier GE, Alter HJ, Luetkemeyer RB, Solomon R, Bayer WL (1984) Relation of titers of antibodies to CMV in blood donors to the transmission of cytomegalovirus infection. J Infect Dis 150: 883–888
Beschorner WE, Hutchins GM, Burns WH (1980) Cytomegalovirus pneumonia in bone marrow transplant recipients: miliary and diffuse patterns. Am Rev Respir Dis 122: 107–114
Bevan IS, Daw RA, Day PJ, Ala FA, Walker MR (1991) Polymerase chain reaction for detection of human cytomegalovirus infection in a blood donor population. Br J Haematol 78: 94–99
Bin X, Tsugiya M, Ishida K, Furukawa T (1989) Characterization of IgG Fc receptors induced by human cytomegalovirus. J Gen Virol 70: 893–900
Blackett S, Gupta A, Mims CA (1987) DMSO induces reactivation of cytomegalovirus in vitro from spleens of latently infected mice. Arch Virol 93: 273–278
Boland GJ, DeWeger RA, Tilanus MGJ, Ververs C, Bosboom-Kalsbeek K, De Gast GC (1992) Detection of cytomegalovirus (CMV) in granulocytes by polymerase chain reaction compared with the CMV antigen test. J Clin Microbiol 30: 1763–1767
Borisch B, Jahn G, Scholl BC, Filger-Brillinger J, Heymer B, Fleckenstein B, Müller-Hermelink HK (1988) Detection of human cytomegalovirus DNA and viral antigens in tissues of different manifestations of CMV infection. Virchows Arch B Cell Pathol 55: 93–99
Braun RW, Reiser HC (1986) Replication of human cytomegalovirus in human peripheral blood T cells. J Virol 60: 29–36
Browne H, Smith G, Beck S, Minson TA (1990) A complex between MHC class I homologue encoded by human cytomegalovirus and β2 microglobulin. Nature 347: 770–772
Bruggeman CA, Dam-Mieras MCE van (1991) The possible role of cytomegalovirus in atherogenesis. Prog Med Virol 38: 1–26
Bruggeman CA, Debie WHM, Grauls GELM, Majoor G, Van Boven CPA (1983) Infection of laboratory rats with a new CMV-like virus. Arch Virol 76: 189–199
Bruggeman CA, Meijer H, Bosman F, Van Boven CPA (1985) Biology of rat cytomegalovirus infection. Intervirology 24: 1–9
Bruning JH (1988) Cytomegalovirus infections in renal transplantation. Study in a rat model. PhD Thesis, Maastricht
Bruning JH, Bruggeman CA, Van Boven CPA, Van Breda Vriesman PJC (1986) Passive transfer of cytomegalovirus by cardiac and renal organ transplants in a rat model. Transplantation 41: 695–698
Bruning JH, Persoons M, Lemström K, Stals FS, Clerq E de, Bruggeman CA Enhancement of transplantation-associated atherosclerosis by CMV, which can be prevented by antiviral therapy in the form of HPMPC (submitted for publication)
Bukowski JF, Warner JF, Dennert G, Welsch RM (1985) Adoptive transfer studies demonstrating the antiviral effect of natural killer cells in vivo. J Exp Med 161: 40–52
Cassol SA, Poon MC, Pal R, Naylor MJ, Culver-James J, Bowen TJ, Russell JA, Krawetz SA, Pon RT, Hoar DI (1989) Primer-mediated enzymatic amplification of cytomegalovirus (CMV) DNA. Application to the early diagnosis of CMV infection in marrow transplant recipients. J Clin Invest 83: 1109–1115
Chandler SH, Handsfield HH, McDougall JK (1987) Isolation of multiple strains of cytomegalovirus from women attending a clinic for sexually transmitted diseases. J Infect Dis 155: 655–660
Chee MS, Satchwell SC, Preddie E, Weston KM, Barrell GB (1990) Human cytomegalovirus encodes three G protein-coupled receptor homologues. Nature 344: 774–777
Cheung KS, Lang DJ (1977) Detection of latent cytomegalovirus in murine salivary and prostate explant cultures and cells. Infect Immun 15: 568–575
Chou S, Kim DY, Norman DJ (1987) Transmission of cytomegalovirus by pretransplant leukocyte transfusions in renal transplant candidates. J Infect Dis 155: 565–567
Clouse KA, Robbins PB, Fernie B, Ostrove JM, Fauci AS (1989) Viral antigen stimulation of the production of human monokines capable of regulating HIV 1 expression. J Immunol 143: 470–475
Collier AC, Handsfield HH, Roberts PL, DeRoven T, Meyers JD, Leach L, Murphy VL, Verdon M, Corey L (1990) Cytomegalovirus infection in women attending a sexually transmitted disease clinic. J Infect Dis 162: 46–51
Dankner WM, McCutchan JA, Richman DD, Hirata K, Spector SA (1990) Localization of human cytomegalovirus in peripheral blood leukocytes by in situ hybridization. J Infect Dis 161: 31–36
David D, Ravid Z, Morag A (1987) Detection of human cytomegalovirus DNA in human tonsillar lymphocytes. J Med Virol 23: 383–391
Davis MG, Kenney SC, Kamine J, Pagano JS, Huang ES (1987) Immediate-early gene region of human cytomegalovirus transactivates the promoter of human immunodeficiency virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 84: 8642–8646
De Gans J, Tiessens G, Portegies P, Tutuarima JA, Troost D (1990) Predominance of polymorphonuclear leukocytes in cerebrospinal fluid of AIDS patients with cytomegalovirus polyradiculomyelitis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 3: 1155–1158
De Gast GC, Boland GJ, Vlieger AM, Weger RA, Verdonck LF, Zwaan FE, Jiwa NM (1992) Abortive human cytomegalovirus infection in patients after allogenic bone marrow transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 9: 221–225
Demmler GJ (1991) Summary of a workshop on surveillance for congenital cytomegalovirus disease. Rev Infect Dis 13: 315–329
Doerr HW (1987) Cytomegalovirus infection in pregnancy. J Virol Methods 17: 127–132
Drew WL, Mintz L, Miner RC, Sands M, Ketterer B (1981) Prevalence of cytomegalovirus infection in homosexual man. J Infect Dis 143: 188–192
Dworsky M, Yow M, Stagno S, Pass RF, Alford C (1983) Cytomegalovirus infection of breast milk and transmission in infancy. Pediatrics 72: 295–299
Fraser NW, Block TM, Spivack JG (1992) The latency-associated transcripts of herpes simplex virus: RNA in research and function. Virology 191: 1–8
Garssen J, Van der Vliet H, De Klerk A, Dormans JAMA, Bruggeman CA, Osterhaus ADME, vna Loveren H (1993) A rat cytomegalovirus infection model as a tool for immunotoxicity testing. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol (in press)
Gass P, Kiessling M, Schafer P, Mester C, Schmitt HP, Kuhn JE (1993) Detection of human cytomegalovirus DNA in paraffin sections of human brain by polymerase chain reaction and the occurrence of false negative results. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 56: 211–214
Gerna G, Zipeto D, Percivalle E, Parea M, Revello MG, Maccario R, Geri G, Milanesi G (1992) Human cytomegalovirus infection of the major leukocyte subpopulations and evidence for initial viral replication in polymorphonuclear leukocytes from viremic patients. J Infect Dis 166: 1236–1244
Gooding LR (1992) Virus proteins that counteract host immune defenses. Cell 71: 5–7
Grattan MT, Moreno-Cabral CE, Starnes VA, Oyer PE, Stinson EB, Shumway NE (1989) Cytomegalovirus infection is associated with cardiac allograft rejection and atherosclerosis. JAMA 261: 3561–3566
Griffith BP, Hsiung GD (1980) Cytomegalovirus infection in guinea pigs. IV. Maternal infection at different stages of gestation. J Infect Dis 141: 787–793
Griffith BP, McCormick SR, Booss J, Hsiung GD (1986) Inbred guinea pig model of intrauterine infection with cytomegalovirus. Am J Pathol 122: 112–119
Griffiths PD, Grundy JE (1988) The status of CMV as human pathogen. Epidemiol Infect 100: 1–15
Hamilton JD, Seaworth BJ (1985) Transmission of latent cytomegalovirus in a murine kidney tissue transplantation model. Transplantation 39: 290–296
Hendrix MGR, Dormans PHJ, Kitslaar P, Bosman F, Bruggeman CA (1989) The presence of CMV nucleic acids in arterial walls of atherosclerotic and non-atherosclerotic patients. Am J Pathol 134: 1151–1157
Hendrix MGR, Salimans MMM, van Boven CPA, Bruggeman CA (1990) High prevalence of latently present cytomegalovirus in arterial walls of patients suffering from grade III atherosclerosis. Am J Pathol 136: 23–28
Hendrix MGR, Wagenaar M, Geelen JLMCh, Bruggeman CA Widespread presence of latent cytomegalovirus nucleic acids in tissues of normal HCMV seropositive patients (submitted for publication)
Hirota K, Muraguchi K, Watabe N, Okumura M, Kozu M, Takahashi K, Machida Y, Funayama Y, Oshima T, Numazaki Y (1992) Prospective study on maternal intrauterine and perinatal infections with cytomegalovirus in Japan during 1976–1990. J Med Virol 37: 303–306
Ho M (1990) Epidemiology of cytomegalovirus infection. Rev Infect Dis 12: (Suppl) 7: 701–710
Ho M (1991) Cytomegalovirus, biology and Infection. New York, Plenum Medical books Co
Hsu D-H, De Waal Malefyt R, Fiorentino DF, Dang MN, Vieira P, De Vries J, Spits H, Mosmann TR, Moore KW (1990) Expression of interleukin-10 activity by Epstein-Barr virus protein BCRF1. Science 250: 830–832
Jiwa NM, van Gemert GW, Raap AK, van de Rijke FM, Mulder A, Lens PF, Salimans MMM, Zwaan FE, van Dorp W, van der Ploeg M (1989a) Rapid detection of human cytomegalovirus DNA in peripheral blood leukocytes of viremic transplant recipients by the polymerase chain reaction. Transplantation 48: 72–76
Jiwa NM, van de Rijke FM, Mulder A, van der Bij W, The TH, Rothbarth PhH, Velzing J, van der Ploeg M, Raap AK (1989b) An improved immunocytochemical method for the detection of human cytomegalovirus antigens in peripheral blood leukocytes. Histochemistry 91: 345–349
Jordan MC, Mar VL (1982) Spontaneous activation of latent cytomegalovirus from murine spleen explants. Role of lymphocytes and macrophages in release and replication of virus. J Clin Invest 70: 762–768
Jordan MC, Rousseau WE, Noble GR (1973) Association of cervical cytomegaloviruses with venereal disease. N Engl J Med 288: 932–934
Jordan MC, Shanley JC, Stevens JC (1977) Immunosuppression reactivates and disseminates latent murine cytomegalovirus. J Gen Virol 37: 419–423
Kane RC, Rousseau WE, Noble GR, Tegtmeier GE, Wulff H, Herndon HB, Chin TDY, Bayer WL (1975) Cytomegalovirus infection in a volunteer blood donor population. Infect Immun 11: 719–723
Klotman ME, Henry SC, Greene RC, Brazy PC, Klotman PE, Hamilton JD (1990) Detection of mouse cytomegalovirus nucleic acid in latently infected mice by in vitro enzymatic amplification. J Infect Dis 161: 220–225
Koszinowski VH, Reddehase MJ, Keil GM, Volkmer H, Jonjic S, Messerle M, del Val M (1987) Molecular analysis of herpes viral gene products recognized by protective cytolytic T lymphocytes. Immunol Lett 16: 185–192
Lamberson HV, McMillan JA, Weiner LB, Williams ML, Clark DA, McMahon CA, Lentz EB, Higgins AP, Dock NL (1988) Prevention of transfusion-associated cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection in neonates by screening blood donors for IgM to CMV. J. Infect Dis 157: 820–823
Lang DJ, Ebert PA, Rodgers BM, Boggess HP, Rixse RS (1977) Reduction of postperfusion cytomegalovirus-infections following the use of leukocyte depleted blood. Transfusion 17: 391–395
Lang DJ, Kummer JF (1975) Cytomegalovirus in semen: observations in selected populations. J Infect Dis 132: 472–473
Lemström KB, Bruning JH, Bruggeman CA, Lautenschlager IT, Häyry PJ (1993) Cytomegalovirus infection enhances smooth muscle cell proliferation and intimal thickening of rat aortic allografts. J Clin Invest 92: 549–558
Lentz EB, Dock NL, McMahon CA, Fiesthumel SR, Arnold CB, Lamberson HV Jr (1988) Detection of antibody of cytomegalovirus-induced early antigens and comparison with four serologic assays and presence of viruria in blood donors. J Clin Microbiol 26: 133–135
Loebe MS, Schüler S, Ortwin Z, Warnecke H, Fleck E, Hetzer R (1990) Role of cytomegalovirus infection in the development of coronary artery disease in the transplanted heart. J Heart Transplant 9: 707–711
Macasaet FF, Holley KE, Smith TF, Feys TF (1975) Cytomegalovirus studies of autopsy tissue. II. Incidence of inclusion bodies and related pathologic data. Am J Clin Pathol 63: 859–865
Mannini A, Medearis DN Jr (1961) Mouse salivary gland virus infections. Am J Hyg 73: 329–343
Masih AS, Linder J, Shaw BW, Wood RP, Donovan JP, White R, Markin RS (1988) Rapid identification of cytomegalovirus in liver allograft biopsies by in situ hybridisation. Am J Surg Path 12: 362–367
Mayo DR, Armstrong JA, Ho M (1977) Reactivation of murine cytomegalovirus by cyclophosphamide. Nature (London) 267: 721–723
Mayo DR, Armstrong JA, Ho M (1978) Activation of latent murine cytomegalovirus infection: cocultivation, cell transfer and the effect of immunosuppression. J Infect Dis 138: 890–896
McDonald K, Rector TS, Braunlin TA, Kubo SH, Olvari MT (1989) Association of coronary artery disease in cardiac transplant recipients with cytomegalovirus infection. Am J Pathol 64: 359–362
Melnick JL, Adam E, DeBakey ME (1990) Possible role of cytomegalovirus in atherogenesis. JAMA 263: 2204–2207
Melnick JL, Petrie BL, Dreesman GR, Burek J, McCollum CH, DeBakey ME (1983) Cytomegalovirus antigen within human arterial smooth muscle cells. Lancet 2: 644–647
Mercer JA, Spector DH (1986) Pathogenesis of acute murine cytomegalovirus infection in resistant and susceptible strains of mice. J Virol 57: 497–504
Mercer JA, Wiley CA, Spector DH (1988) Pathogenesis of murine cytomegalovirus infection: identification of infected cells in the spleen during acute and latent infections. J Virol 62: 987–997
Merigan TC, Resta S (1990) Cytomegalovirus: where have we been and where are we going?. Rev Infect Dis 12:[Suppl] 7: 693–700
Mims CA, Gould J (1979) Infection of salivary glands, kidneys, adrenals, ovaries and epithelia by murine CMV. J Med Microbiol 12: 113–122
Mintz L, Drew WL, Miner RC, Braff EH (1983) Cytomegalovirus infections in homosexual men Ann Intern Med 89: 326–329
Montgomery RL, Youngblood LA, Medearis DN Jr (1972) Recovery of cytomegalovirus from the cervix in pregnancy. Pediatrics 49: 524–531
Myerson D, Hackman RC, Nelson JA, Ward DC, McDougall JK (1984) Widespread presence of histologically occult cytomegalovirus. Hum Pathol 15: 430–439
Numazaki Y, Yano N, Morizuka T (1970) Primary infection with human cytomegalovirus: Virus isolation from healthy infants and pregnant women. Am J Epidemiol 91: 410–417
Ohashi T, Nawa Y, Minamishima Y, Owhashi M (1988) Susceptibility of w/wu mice to murine cytomegalovirus infection. Arch Virol 101: 237–246
Olding LB, Jensen FC, Oldstone MBA (1975) Pathogenesis of cytomegalovirus infection. I. Activation of virus from bone marrow derived lymphocytes by in vitro allogeneic reactivation. J Exp Med 141: 561–572
Oldstone MBA (1989) Viral persistence. Cell 56: 517–520
Pass RF (1985) Epidemiology and transmission of cytomegalovirus. J Infect Dis 152: 243–248
Pass RF, August AM, Dworsky M, Reynolds DW (1982) Cytomegalovirus infection in a day-care center. N Engl J Med 307: 477–479
Pass RF, Hutto SC, Reynolds DW, Polhill RB (1984) Increased frequency of cytomegalovirus infection in children in group day-care. Pediatrics 74: 121–126
Pass RF, Hutto SC, Ricks R, Cloud GA (1986) Increased rate of cytomegalovirus infection among parents of children attending day-care centers. N Engl J Med 314: 1414–1418
Persoons MCJ, Daemen MJAP, Bruning JH, Bruggeman CA. Active cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection of arterial smooth muscle cells in immunocompromised rats. A clue to CMV associated atherogenesis? (Submitted for publication)
Petrie BL, Melnick JL, Adam E, Burek J, McCollum CH, DeBakey ME (1987) Nucleic acid sequences of cytomegalovirus in cells cultured from human arterial tissue. J Infect Dis 155: 158–159
Prince AM, Szmuness W, Millian SJ (1971) A serologic study of cytomegalovirus infections associated with blood transfusions. N Engl J Med 284: 1125–1131
Pomeroy C, Hilleren PJ, Jordan MC (1991) Latent murine cytomegalovirus DNA in splenic stromal cells of mice. J Virol 65–6: 3330–3334
Quinnan GV, Manischewitz JE, Ennis FA (1978) Cytotoxic T lymphocyte response to murine cytomegalovirus infection. Nature (London) 273: 541–543
Rasing LAJ, De Weger RA, Verdonck LF, Van der Bij W, Compier-Spies PhI, De Gast GC, van Basten CDH, Schuurman H-J (1990) The value of immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization in detecting cytomegalovirus in bone marrow transplant recipients. APMIS 98: 479–488
Reddehase MJ, Koszinowski UH (1984) Significance of herpesvirus immediate early gene expression in cellular immunity to cytomegalovirus infection. Nature 312: 369–371
Reddehase MJ, Weiland F, Munch K, Jonjic S, Lüske A, Koszinowski UH (1985) Interstitial murine cytomegalovirus pneumonia after irradiation: characterization of cells that limit viral replication during established infection of the lungs. J Virol 55: 264–273
Revello MG, Percivalle E, Zavattoni M, Parea M, Gross P, Gerna G (1989) Detection of human cytomegalovirus immediate-early antigen in leukocytes as a marker of viremia in immunocompromised patients. J Med Virol 29: 88–93
Reynolds DW, Stagno S, Hosty TS, Tiller M, Alford CA Jr (1973) Maternal cytomegalovirus excretion and perinatal infection. N Engl J Med 289: 1–5
Reynolds DW, Stagno S, Stubbs KG, Dahle AJ, Livingston MM, Saxon SS, Alford CA (1974) Inapparent congenital cytomegalovirus infection with elevated cord IgM levels. N Engl J Med 290: 291–296
Rubin RH, Wilson EJ, Barrett LV, Medearis DN (1984) Primary cytomegalovirus infection following cardiac transplantation in a murine model. Transplantation 37: 306–310
Saltzman RL, Quirk MR, Jordan MC (1988) Disseminated cytomegalovirus infection. Molecular analysis of virus and leukocyte interactions in viremia. J Clin Invest 81: 75–81
Schrier RD, Nelson JA, Oldstone MBA (1985) Detection of human cytomegalovirus in peripheral blood lymphocytes in a natural infection. Science 230: 1048–1051
Shanley JD, Biczak L, Forman SJ (1993) Acute murine cytomegalovirus infection induces lethal hepatitis. J Infect Dis 167: 264–269
Shanley JD, Billingsley AM, Shelby J, Corry RJ (1983) Transfer of murine cytomegalovirus infection by heart transplantation. Transplantation 36: 584–586
Shanley JD, Jordan MC, Cook ML, Stevens JG (1979) Pathogenesis of reactivated latent murine cytomegalovirus infection. Am J Pathol 95: 67–80
Shanley JD, Jordan MC, Stevens JG (1981) Modification by adoptive humoral immunity of murine cytomegalovirus infection. J Infect Dis 143: 231–237
Shelby J, Shanley J (1987) Transfer of murine cytomegalovirus by syngeneic skin grafts. Transplantation 44: 318–319
Shibata D, Martin WJ, Appleman MD, Causey DM, Leedom JM, Arnheim N (1988) Detection of cytomegalovirus DNA in peripheral blood of patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Infect Dis 158: 1185–1192
Shibata D, Klatt EC (1989) Analysis of human immunodeficiency virus and cytomegalovirus infection by polymerase chain reaction in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch Pathol Lab Med 113: 1239–1244
Sissons JGP (1986) The immunology of cytomegalovirus infection. J R Coll Physicians Lond 20: 40–44
Smith CA, Davis T, Wignal JM, Din WS, Farrah T, Upton C, McFadden G, Goodwin RG (1991) T2 open reading frame from the Shope fibroma virus encodes a soluble form of the TNF receptor. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 176: 335–342
Smith PD, Saini SS, Raffeid M, Manischewitz JF, Wahl SM (1992) Cytomegalovirus induction of tumor necrosis factor-α by human monocytes and mucosal macrophages. J Clin Invest 90: 1642–1648
Span AHM, Grauls G, Bosman F, Boven CPA van, Bruggeman CA (1992) Cytomegalovirus infection induces vascular injury in the rat. Atherosclerosis 93: 41–52
Spriggs MK, Hruby DE, Maliszewski CR, Pickup DJ, Sims JE, Buller RML, Vanslyke J (1992) Vaccinia and cowpox viruses encode a novel secreted interleukin-1 binding protein. Cell 71: 145–152
Stagno S, Pass RF, Dworsky ME, Alford CA Jr (1982a) Maternal cytomegalovirus infection and perinatal transmission. Clin Obstet Gynecol 25: 563–576
Stagno S, Pass RF, Dworsky ME, Henderson RE, Moore EG, Walton PD, Alford CA (1982b) Congenital cytomegalovirus infection. The relative importance of primary and recurrent maternal infection. N Engl J Med 306: 945–949
Stals FS, Bosman F, van Boven CPA, Bruggeman CA (1990) An animal model for therapeutic intervention studies of CMV infection in the immunocompromised host. Arch Virol 114: 91–107
Stanier P, Taylor DL, Kitchen AD, Wales N, Tryhorn Y, Tyms AS (1989) Persistence of cytomegalovirus in mononuclear cells in peripheral blood from blood donors. Br Med J 299: 897–898
Stevens JG (1989) Human herpesviruses: a consideration of the latent state. Microbiol Rev 53: 318–332
Tanaka S, Toh Y, Mori R, Komori K, Okadoma K, Sugimachi K (1992) Possible role of cytomegalovirus in the pathogenesis of inflammatory aortic diseases: a preliminary report. J Vasc Surg 16: 274–279
Taylor-Wiedeman J, Sissons JGP, Borysiewicz LK, Sinclair JH (1991) Monocytes are a major site of persistence of human cytomegalovirus in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. J Gen Virol 72: 2059–2064
Tegtmeier GE (1989) Posttransfusion cytomegalovirus infections. Arch Pathol Lab Med 113: 236–245
The TH, van der Ploeg M, van den Berg AP, Vlieger AM, van der Giessen M, Son WJ van (1992) Direct detection of cytomegalovirus in peripheral blood leukocytes—a review of the antigenemia assay and polymerase chain reaction. Transplantation 54: 193–198
Tolpin MD, Stewart JA, Warren D, Mojica BA, Collins MA, Doveikis SA, Cabradilla C, Schauf V, Raju T, Nelson K (1985) Transfusion transmission of cytomegalovirus confirmed by restriction endonuclease analysis. J Pediatr 107: 953–956
Toorkey CB, Carrigan DR (1989) Immunohistochemical detection of an immediate early antigen of human cytomegalovirus in normal tissues. J Infect Dis 160: 741–751
Tosato G, Seamon KB, Goldman ND, Sehgal PB, May LT, Washington GC, Jones KD, Pike SE (1988) Monocyte-derived human B-cell growth factor identified as Interferon-β2 (BSF-2, IL-6). Science 239: 502–504
Tosato G, Tanner J, Jones KD, Revel M, Pike SE (1990) Identification of Interleukin-6 as an autocrine growth factor for Epstein-Barr virus-immortalized B cells. J Virol 64: 3033–3041
Turtinen LW, Saltzman R, Jordan MC, Haase AT (1987) Interactions of human cytomegalovirus with leukocytes in vivo: analysis by in situ hybridization. Microb Pathog 3: 287–297
Van der Bij W, van Dijk RB, van Son WJ, Torensma R, Prenger KB, Prop J, The TH (1988) Antigen test for early diagnosis of active cytomegalovirus infection in heart transplant recipients. J Heart Transplant 7:106–109
Wang P-S, Evans AS (1986) Prevalence of antibodies to Epstein-Barr virus and cytomegalovirus in sera from a group of children in the People's Republic of China. J Infect Dis 153: 150–152
Webster A (1991) Cytomegalovirus as a possible cofactor in HIV disease progression. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 4: S47-S52
Wiley CA, Nelson JA (1988) Role of human immunodeficiency virus and cytomegalovirus in AIDS encephalitis. Am J Pathol 133: 73–81
Wilson EJ, Medearis DN, Barrett LV, Rubin RH (1985) Activation of latent murine cytomegalovirus in cardiac explant and cell cultures. J Infect Dis 152: 625–626
Wise TG, Manischewitz JE, Quinnan GV, Aukakh GS, Ennis FA (1979) Latent cytomegalovirus infection of BALB/c mouse spleens detected by an explant culture technique. J Gen Virol 114: 551–556
Wu T-C, Lee WA, Pizzorno MC, Au W-C, Chan Y-J, Hruban RH, Hutchins GM, Hayward GS (1992a) Localization of the human cytomegalovirus 2.7-kb major early β-gene transcripts by RNA in situ hybridization in permissive and nonpermissive infections. Am J Pathol 141: 1247–1254
Wu T-C, Pizzorno MC, Hayward GS, Willoughby S, Neumann DA, Rose NR, Ansari AA, Beschorner WE, Baughman KL, Herskowitz A (1992b) In situ detection of human cytomegalovirus immediate-early gene transcripts within cardiac myocytes of patients with HIV-associated cardiomyopathy. AIDS 6: 777–785
Yomashiroya HM, Ghosh L, Yang R, Robertson AL (1988) Herpes viridae in the coronary arteries and aorta of young trauma victims. Am J Pathol 130: 71–79
Yow MD, Williamson DW, Leeds LJ, Thompson P, Woodward RM, Walmus BF, Lester JW, Six HR, Griffiths PD (1988) Epidemiologic characteristics of cytomegalovirus infection in mothers and their infants. Am J Obstet Gynecol 158: 1189–1195
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bruggeman, C.A. Cytomegalovirus and latency: an overview. Virchows Archiv B Cell Pathol 64, 325–333 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02915131
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02915131