Abstract
In moist temperate and tropical environments species that typically become established in closed, shaded habitats tend to have larger seeds than those that regenerate in open, secondary habitats. Despite this common pattern and the frequency with which benefits of small seed size for early successional species (large number, enhanced dispersal potential) have been discussed, little attention has focused on the advantages of large seeds for species that regenerate in closed, late successional associations.
It is generally considered that large seeds enhance seedling survivorship at low light intensities. However, light intensity is only one of several factors that differ between shaded and sunlit habitats. This review examines microclimatic and biotic differences between shaded subcanopy habitats in mature tropical forests and those in sunlit, light gap habitats in which the early stages of tropical forest succession occur. Each factor is examined as a possible selective agent responsible for maintaining seed size differences between two guilds of tropical rainforest trees; the pioneer species that have small seeds and typically become established in large, sunlit gaps in the forest canopy and the persistent, relatively shade-tolerant species that have larger seeds and produce seedlings that survive for variable periods of time in the shade beneath the forest canopy.
Three microclimatic factors that differ in subcanopy and gap habitats are examined; temperature, moisture, and light intensity. It is unlikely that temperature has been an important selective agent in maintaining the differences in seed sizes observed between the pioneer and persistent tree guilds. However, greater desiccation stress in light gaps might prevent successful regeneration of larger seeds in this habitat and thus might impose the smaller mean seed sizes of pioneer species. Reduced light intensities in subcanopy habitats also could favor larger seeds in the persistent guild because large seed reserves might 1) enhance the abilities of seeds to persist until suitable light (or moisture) conditions arise by providing for metabolic requirements of seeds during quiescent periods, 2) provide secondary compounds for defense of persistent seedlings against pathogens and predators during periods of low energy availability, 3) provide energy for construction of large amounts of photosynthetic tissue needed to maintain a positive net energy balance when light conditions are just above the leaf light compensation point of the plant, 4) provide energy for growth into higher light intensity strata, and 5) provide nutrients for replacement of lost or damaged tissues in persistent seedlings.
Differences between soils in light gaps and subcanopy habitats are considered briefly. It is concluded that too little is known for predictions to be made regarding the probable effects of soil differences on the sizes of seeds able to survive in each habitat. Finally, differences between the two habitats in four biotic factors (competition, predation, pathogens, and mycorrhizal availability) are considered. Of these, greater competition for nutrients in the subcanopy habitat, and competition among co-germinating seedlings for light could have been important in favoring large seeds in the guild of persistent species. Pathogens are known to be more effective in shaded habitats, but data on seedling resistance to pathogens do not provide support for a role of seed size in enhancing resistance. Although differences in predation intensity and in mycorrhizal abundance in the two habitats have not been evaluated in the field, potential roles of these two factors in maintaining the seed size differential between these two guilds of forest trees are discussed.
Despite the existence of numerous potential benefits of large seed reserves, seed sizes often must reflect compromises between conflicting selective pressures. Environmental conditions (e.g., moisture availability) can impose upper limits on seed size. Enhanced dispersal potential and greater total propagule numbers from maternal energy reserves are benefits of small seed size that can counterbalance selection for large seed reserves. The interactions between selective forces in molding seed sizes are discussed in a final section.
Zusammenfassung
In feuchten, gemaessigten und tropischen Gebieten neigen die Pflanzenarten, die gewoehnlich geschlossene, schattige Habitate besiedeln, groessere Samen zu bilden als jene Arten, die in offenen, zerstoerten Habitaten wachsen. Obwohl dieses Muster haeufig zu finden ist, und der Vorteil von kleiner Samengroesse fuer frueh nachwachsende Arten diskutiert worden ist (grosse Anzahl, verbesserte Verbreitungsmoeglichkeit), wurde nur wenig darauf geachtet, welchen Vorteil grosse Samen einer Art geben koennen, die sich in einem geschlossenen, spaet nachwachsenden Verband regeneriert.
Es wird i.a. angenommen, dass bei geringer Lichtintensitaet grosse Samen das Ueberleben eines Saemlings verbessern. Lichtintensitaet ist jedoch nur einer von mehreren Faktoren, in denen sich schattige und sonnige Habitate unterscheiden. Dieser Uebersichtsartikel untersucht mikroklimatische und biotische Unterschiede zwischen schattigen, Habitaten im ausgewachsenen tropischen Urwald und sonnenreichen Habitaten in den fruehen Stadien der Wiederbewaldung. Jeder Faktor wird daraufhin untersucht, ob er eine moegliche Selektionskraft ist, die die Unterschiede in der Samengroesse zwischen den beiden Gruppen von tropischen Regenwaldbaeumen aufrechterhaelt: 1) die Pionier-Arten; sie haben kleine Samen und wachsen charakteristischer weise in grosseren lichten Partien des Waldes; 2) die sich hartnaeckig haltenden (persistenten), relativ viel Schatten tolerierenden Arten; sie haben die groesseren Samen und produzieren Saemlinge, die langere Zeitperioden im Schatten unterhalb der Baumkronen ueberleben.
Es werden die folgenden drei mikroklimatische Faktoren untersucht, die sich in Schattigen und lichtreichen Habitaten unterscheiden: Temperatur, Feuchtigkeit und Lichtintensitaet. Es ist unwahrscheinlich, dass Temperatur eine wichtige selektive Kraft ist, die die Unterschiede in der Samengroesse zwischen den Pionier-Arten und den persistenten Arten alfrechterhaelt. Austrocknungsstress koennte jedoch eine obere Grenze fuer die Groesse von Samen setzen, die in sonnenreichen Habitaten keimen. Somit koennte Austrocknungsstress die kleine Groesse der Samen bei Pionierpflanzen beeinflussen. Geringere Lichtintensitaet in Schattigen Habitaten koennte grosse Samen in der persistenten Baumgruppe favorisieren, da grosse Samenreserven 1) dem Samen ermoeglichen auszuharren, bis bessere Lichtverhaeltnisse (oder Feuchtigkeitsverhaeltnisse) entstehen, indem sie dem ruhenden Saemling die metabolischen Erfordernisse liefern; 2) sekundaeren Inhaltsstotte zur Verteidigung von Saemlingen gegen Pathogene und Pflanzenfresser in Perioden liefern, in denen wenig Energie zur Verfuegung steht; 3) Energie zur Herstellung grosser Mengen von photosynthetischem Gewebe liefern, das fuer ein positives Energiegleichgewicht notwendig ist; 4) Energie liefern, um in die hoeheren, lichtintensiveren Bereiche zu gelangen; 5) Naehrstoffe liefern, um zerstoertes oder verlorengegangenes Gewebe zu ersetzen.
Es werden hier kurz die Unterschiede zwischen den Boeden in lichten und schattigen Habitaten betrachtet. Es ergibt sich, dass zu wenig bekannt ist, um Voraussagen machen zu koennen, ob die verschiedenen Boeden in den unterschiedlichen Habitaten einen Einfluss auf die Groesse und die Ueberlebensfaehigkeit von Samen haben. Zum Schluss werden die Unterschiede zwischen den beiden Habitaten bez. vier biotischer Faktoren (Konkurrenz, Pflanzenfresser Pathogene und Pilzsymbiosen) betrachtet. Von diesen Faktoren koennte die Konkurrenz um Naehrstoffe in schattigen Habitaten und die Konkurrenz um Licht zwischen gleichzeitig keimenden Saemlingen wesentlich sein, dass in der Gruppe der persistenten Arten grosse Samen favorisiert werden. Bekanntlich sind Pathogene wirkungsvoller in schattigen Habitaten. Untersuchungen ueber die Widerstandskraft von Saemlingen gegen Pathogene zeigen aber nicht, dass die Samengroesse den Widerstand gegen Pathogene verbessert. Bis jetzt wurde im Freiland nicht untersucht, ob sich beide Habitate in der Häufigkeit von Pflanzenfressern und dem Vorkommen von Pilzsymbionten unterscheiden. Es werden hier die potentiellen Moeglichkeiten dieser beiden Faktoren zur Erhaltung der Unterschiede in der Samengroesse zwischen den beiden Gruppen von Baeumen diskutiert.
Obwohl eine Anzahl von moeglichen Vorteilen fuer eine grosse Samengroesse existiert, spiegelt die Groesse des Samens einen Kompromiss zwischen gegensaetzlich wirkenden Selektionskraeften wider. So koennen Bedingungen der Umgebung (z.B. Verfuegbarkeit von Wasser) die obere Grenze der Samengroesse bestimmen. Die Selektion fuer verbesserte Verbreitungsmoeglichkeit und die Selektion fuer eine groessere Anzahl von Nachkommen bevorzugen dagegen eine kleine Samengroesse. Sie koennen somit der Selektion fuer grosse Samengroesse entgegenwirken. Abschliessend wird diskutiert in welcher Art und Weise sich die verschiedenen Selektionskraefte bei der Bildung der Samengroesse gegenseitig beeinflussen.
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Foster, S.A. On the adaptive value of large seeds for tropical moist forest trees: A review and synthesis. Bot. Rev 52, 260–299 (1986). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02860997
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02860997