Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Regeneration dynamics, causal factors, and characteristics of pacific ocean-type beech (Fagus crenata) forests in Japan: A review

  • Published:
Folia Geobotanica Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper reviews the differences in the distribution and regeneration ofFagus crenata between two types of Japanese beech forests, the Japan Sea (JS)-type and the Pacific Ocean (PO)-type, and discusses the causal factors and characteristics of these forests, particularly the PO-type.F. crenata in PO-type forests regenerates sporadically rather than constantly, whereas regeneration in the JS-type forests is relatively constant with gap dynamics.F. crenata has dominated in snowy areas both in the past, after the last glacial age, when there was less human disturbance, and in the present. Snow accumulation facilitates beech regeneration in snowy JS-type forests, but not in the less snowy PO-type. Snow protects beechnuts from damage caused by rodents, desiccation, and freezing. In addition, snow suppresses dwarf bamboo in the spring, thus increasing the amount of sunlight available for beech seedlings on the forest floor. Snow also supplies melt water during the growing season and limits the distribution of herbivores. Moreover, snow reduces the number of forest fires during the dry winter and early spring seasons. The low densities ofF. crenata impede its regeneration, because disturbed wind pollination lowers seed fertility and predators are less effectively satiated. In snowy JS-type beech forests,F. crenata dominates both at the adult and the juvenile stages because it regenerates well, while other species are eliminated by heavy snow pressure. On the less snowy PO-side, deciduous broad-leaved forests with various species are a primary feature, althoughF. crenata dominates because of its large size and long lifespan.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abe M., Miguchi H. &Nakashizuka T. (2001): An interactive effect of simultaneous death of dwarf bamboo, canopy gap, and predatory rodents on beech regeneration.Oecologia 127: 281–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Akashi N. (1997): Dispersion pattern and mortality of seeds and seedlings ofFagus crenataBlume in a cool temperate forest in western Japan.Ecol. Res. 12: 159–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Akbarinia M., Hukushima T. &Kamijo T. (1995): A comparative study of the vegetation structure of theFagus orientalis forest in Iran and theFagus crenata forests in Japan.J. Phytogeogr. Taxon. 43: 75–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous (1809): Nature of Aizu district (Shinpen-Aizu-Fudoki). In:Hanai S. (1970):Shinpen-Aizu-Fudoki 2, Dai-Nippon geography system 26, Yuzankaku, Tokyo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aomori Regional Forest Office (1973):Explanation of forestry in natural beech forests. Aomori Regional forest Office, Aomori (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Arai F., Oba T., Kitazato H., Horibe Y. &Machida H. (1981): Last Quaternary tephrochronology and paleo-oceanography of the sediments of the Japan Sea.Quatern. Res. (Nagoya) 20: 209–230 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Borchert J. R. (1950): The climate of the central North American grassland.Ann. Assoc. Amer. Geogr. 40(1): 1–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cao K. (1995): Fagusdominance in Chinese montane forests. Thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cahalance V. H. (1942): Caching and recovery of food by the western fox squirrel.J. Wildlife Managem. 6: 338–352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fowells H. A. (ed). (1965):Silvics of forest trees of the United States. USDA Forest Service Agric. Handbook 271, Washington.

  • Fujita N. (1986): Structure and species composition of Japan-sea type and Pacific-type beech forests.Stud. Spec. Biol. (Syuseibutsugaku-Kenkyu) 10: 1–13 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Fujita N. (1987): One-sided distribution of the component species of the Japanese beech forest along either the Pacific or the Japan Sea.Acta Phytotax. Geobot. 38: 311–329 (in Japanese with English synopsis).

    Google Scholar 

  • Furutani M. (1979): Studies on the forest history in the Osaka area since Würm glacial age in Japan.Quatern. Res. (Nagoya) 18: 121–141 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gates D. M. (1993): Past climates. In:Gates D.M. (ed.),Climate change and its biological consequences, Sinauer Associates Inc., Sunderland, pp. 36–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gleason H. A. (1924): The structure of the maple-beech association in northern Michigan.Pap. Michigan Acad. Sci. 4: 285–296.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton K. S. (1955):Silvicultural characteristics of American beech. Beech Utilization Series no.13. NE. For. Exp. Stn., USDA For. Serv., Washington.

  • Hara M. (1983): A study of the regeneration process of a Japanese beech forest.Ecol. Rev. 20: 115–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hara M. (1985): Forest response to gap formation in a climax beech.Jap. J. Ecol. 35: 337–343.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hara M. ed. (1996):Natural history in beech forests. Heibonsya, Tokyo (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hashizume H. (1975): Flowering, pollination, pollen collection and pollen germination inFagus andQuercus species.Bull. Fac. Agric. Tottori Univ. 27: 94–107 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hashizume H. (1979): Characteristics of growth of buna (Fagus crenata). Seedlings and nursery practice.Bull. Tottori Univ. Forests 11: 55–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hashizume H. (1982): The effect of light intensity on the growth and development ofFagus crenata seedlings.Bull. Fac. Agric. Tottori Univ. 34: 82–88 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hashizume H. (1991): Formation of beechnuts. In:Murai H., Yamatani K., Kataoka H. &Yui M. (eds.),Natural environment and conservation of beech forests, Sofutosaiensu-sya, Tokyo, pp. 53–58 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hashizume H. &Fukutomi A. (1978): Development and maturation of fruits and seeds inFagus crenata.Jap. J. Forest. Soc. 60: 163–168 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hashizume H. &Noguchi K. (1977): Studiees on the process of formation of beech forest (III). Regeneration and growth of natural seedlings in beech forest.Bull. Tottori Univ. Forests 10: 31–49 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hashizume H. &Sugawara M. (1985): Production and dispersal of reproductive organs in seed stands of buna (Fagus crenataBlume) (II). Production and dispersal of pollen.Broad-leaved Tree Res. 3: 75–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hashizume H. &Yamamoto S. (1974a): Seed bearing of beech trees (Fagus crenataBlume) in the Chugoku district of Japan (I). A survey of fruit bearing.Jap. J. Forest. Soc. 56:165–170 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hashizume H. &Yamamoto S. (1974b): Seed bearing of beech trees (Fagus crenataBlume) in the Chugoku district of Japan (II). The fertility and character of seeds.Jap. J. Forest. Soc. 56: 393–398 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hashizume H. &Yamamoto S. (1975): Establishment of beech foests (I). Dispersion of nuts and germination and disappearance of seedlings.Trans. Jap. Forest. Soc. 86: 226–227 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hatanaka K. &Miyoshi N. (1980): History of the late Pleistocene and Holocene vegetation in the Ubuka basin, southwestern Japan.Jap. J. Ecol. 30: 239–244 (in Japanese with English synopsis).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hiroki S. &Matsubara T. (1984): Forest dynamics on Mt. Gozaisyo.Stud. Spec. Biol. (Syuseibutsugaku-Kenkyu) 8: 11–20 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hiroki S &Matsubara T. (1995): Fluctuation of nut production and seedling appearance of a Japanese beech (Fagus crenataBlume).Ecol. Res. 10: 161–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Homma K. (1997): Effects of snow pressure on growth form and life history of tree species in Japanese beech forest.J. Veg. Sci. 8: 781–788.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Homma K., Akashi N., Abe T., Hasegawa M., Harada K., Hirabuki Y., Irie K., Kaji M., Miguchi H., Mizoguchi N., Mizunaga H., Nakashizuka T., Natume S., Niiyama K., Ohkubo T., Sawada S., Sugita H., Takatsuki, S. &Yamanaka N. (1999): Geographical variation in the early regeneration process of Siebold’s beech (Fagus crenataBlume) in Japan.Pl. Ecol. 140: 129–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Honda S. (1912):Revised forest plant zone in Japan. Miurasyoten, Tokyo (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hong B. &An S. (1993): Preliminary studies on the geographic distribution onFagus in China.Acta Bot. Sin. 35: 229–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hou H-Y. (1983): Vegetation of China with reference to its geographical distribution.Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 70: 509–548.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howard W. E., Marsh R. E. &Cole R. E. (1968): Food detection by deermice using olfactory rather than visual cues.Anim. Behav. 16: 13–17.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hukushima T., Takasuna H., Matssui T. Nishio T., Kiyan Y. &Tsunetomi Y. (1995): New phytosociological classification of beech forests in Japan.Jap. J. Ecol. 45: 79–98 (in Japanese with English synopsis).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ida H. &Nakagoshi N. (1996): Gnawing damage by rodents to the seedlings ofFagus crenata andQuercus mongolica var.grosseserrata in a temperateSasa grassland-deciduous forest series in southwestern Japan.Ecol. Res. 11: 97–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Igarashi B. (1980): Ecology and extermination of mice under snow-cover conditions.Forest. Ecol. Managem. (Hoppo-Ringyo) 32: 329–331 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Igarashi Y. (1991): Vermin for seeds in beech forests. In:Murai H., Yamatani K., Kataoka H. &Yui M. (eds.),Natural environment and conservation of beech forests, Sofutosaiensu-sya, Tokyo, pp. 226–228 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Imai Y. (1996):Comparison of regeneration dynamics of two Japanese beech species (Fagus crenataand Fagus japonica)in the Pacific Ocean and Japan Sea type beech forests. Master Thesis (No. 325), Forestry section, Agriculture Branch, Graduate School of Utsunomiya University, Utsunomiya (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Irie K., Homma, K., Masuzawa, T., Miguchi, H. &Shimano, K. (1998): Population dynamics of rodents in the beech forests with different snow accumulation and the predation number estimation of the beech masts.J. Phytogeogr. Taxon. 46: 37–45 (in Japanese with English synopsis).

    Google Scholar 

  • Janzen D. H. (1971): Seed predation by animals.Annual Rev. Ecol. Syst. 7: 347–391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jennings T. J. (1976): Seed detection by the wood mouseApodemus sylvaticus.Oikos 27: 174–177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen T. S. (1985): Seed-seed predator interaction of European beech,Fagus silvatica and forest rodents,Clethrionomys glaroelus andApodemus flavicollis.Oikos 44: 149–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaizuka S. &Naruse H. (1977): Transition of ancient geography. In:Japan Quaternary Research Society (ed.),Quaternary research in Japan, University-of-Tokyo Press, Tokyo, pp. 333–351 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaizuka S. (1980): Late Cenozoic palaeogeography of Japan.Geojournal 4.2: 101–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaji M. &Ohkubo T. (1995): Factors and the effects for nut production and seedling germination inFagus species. In:Numata M. (ed.),Present ecology and the periphery, Tokai University Press, Tokyo, pp. 96–104 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamata N. (1996): Interaction between beech trees and population dynamics of its herbivorous insects. Induced response against defoliator and predator satiation hypothesis.Jap. J. Ecol. 46: 191–198 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamei T. &Research Group of the Biogeography of Würm Glacial (1981): Fauna and flora of the Japanese islands in the last glacial time.Quartern. Res. (Nagoya) 20: 191–205 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamitani T. (1984): Studies on the process of formation of secondary beech forest in a heavy snowfall region (1). Bending of stems and its influence upon the stratification.Bull. Niigata Univ. Forests 17: 1–16 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamitani T. (1986): Studies on the process of formation of secondary beech forest in a heavy snowfall region (III). Seed production in secondary beech forest with six different diameter classes.J. Jap. Forest. Soc. 68: 447–453 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kataoka Y. (1989): Treatments of broad-leaved forests (3). Beech forests.Ringyo-Gigyutsu 565: 24–27 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kawamata Y. &Maruyama K. (1972): Comparison of leaf form and nature of beech (Fagus crenata) in different sites.Bull. Niigata Univ. Forests 6: 11–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kikuchi S. (1935): A few discussion of natural beech regeneration in Aizu-Omaesan national forest.J. Jap. Forest. Soc. 17: 851–876 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kimmins J. P. (1987):Forest ecology. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kimura K. (1979): Extermination of field mice under snow cover.Forest Ecol. Managem. (Hoppo Ringyo) 31: 301–305 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kimura K. &Sawada Y. (1983): Activity of field mice under snow cover.Forest Conservation 175: 21–23 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kira T. (1949):Forest zone in Japan. Forestry explanation series 17, Nippon-Ringyo-Gijutsu-Kyokai, Tokyo (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kitagawa H. (1995): Historic time climatic change recorded in Yaku-Sugi,Cryptomeria japonica. In:Yoshino M. &Yasuda Y. (eds.),History and climate, Asakura-Syoten, Tokyo, pp. 47–55 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Koike T. (1988): Leaf structure and photosynthetic performance as related to forest succession of deciduous broad-leaved trees.Pl. Spec. Biol. 3: 77–87

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koike T. &Maruyama Y. (1998): Comparative ecophysiology of the leaf photosynthetic traits in Japanese beech grown in provenances facing the Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Japan.J. Phytogeogr. Taxon. 46: 23–28 (in Japanese with English abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Koizumi T., Suzuki Y. &Shimizu T. (1988):Geomorphological and geological study of forest environment in the source of Tamagawa River, west of Tokyo. Tokyo Foundation for Better Environment, Tokyo (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kojima C. (1975): Analysis of the relation between natural distribution of principal tree species and climatic elements by quantification — some species in Tohoku district.Bull. Gov. Forest. Exp. Sta. 271: 1–26 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kondo N. (1980): Seasonal fluctuation of population size, activity and activity area ofApodemus speciosus ainu (Thomas) in a small stand.J. Mammal Soc. Jap. 8: 129–138 (in Japanese with English abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kure H. &Yoda K. (1984): The effects of the Japan sea climate on the abnormal distribution of Japanese beech forests.Jap. J. Ecol. 34: 63–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maeda T., Miyakawa K. &Tanimoto T. (1985): Vegetation and regeneration of beech (Fagus crenata) forest in Gomisawa, Niigata prefecture. Performance of sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) planted in beech forest zone and a proposal of natural regeneration in the zone.Bull. Forest. & Forest. Prod. Res. Inst. 333: 123–171 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Maeda T. (1988): Studies on natural regeneration of beech (Fagus crenataBlume).Special Bull. Coll. Agric. Utsunomiya Univ. 46: 1–79 (in Japanese with English résumé).

    Google Scholar 

  • Maejima I. (1984): Reconstruction of the Little Ice Age climate.Earth Sci. J. 93: 413–419 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Makita H. (1981): Distribution and characteristic of beech zone in the world.Geography 26: 20–29 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Maruta E. &Kamitani T. (1996): Seedling establishment ofFagus crenataBlume on the Pacific side of Japan I. Emergence and survival of current-year seedlings on Mt. Mikuni.Jap. J. Forest Environm. 38: 43–52 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Maruta E., Kamitani T., Okabe M. &Ide Y. (1997): Desiccation-tolerance ofFagus crenataBlume seeds from localities of different snowfall regime in central Japan.J. Forest. Res. 2: 45–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maruyama K. &Toyama Y. (1987): Effect of water stress on photosynthesis and transpiration in three tall deciduous trees.J. Jap. Forest. Soc. 69: 165–170.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maruyama N. (1981): A study of the seasonal movements and aggregation patterns of sika deer.Bull. Fac. Agric. Tokyo Univ. Agric. Technol. 23: 1–85 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Masuzawa T. &Shimano K. (1995): Restrict factor ofFagus crenata seedling germination. Effect of seed feeding by rodents inFagus crenata forest during winter season.Trans. Jap. Forest. Soc. 106: 405–406 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayer H. (1984):Wälder Europas. Fisher, Stuttgart.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miguchi H. &Maruyama K. (1984): Ecological studies on a natural beech forest (XXXVI). Development and dynamics of beechnuts in a mastyear.J. Jap. Forest. Soc. 66: 320–327 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Miyaki M. &Kikuzawa K. (1986): Mice and nuts. With reference toQuercus natural regeneration.Forest. Ecol. Managem. (Hoppo Ringyo) 38: 271–274 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Mogi A. (1981): Geomorphological evolution of continental shelves of Tsushima Strait (with reference to the Tsushima land bridge).Quatern. Res. (Nagoya) 20: 243–256 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Morita Y. (1987): The vegetational history of the subalpine zone in northeast Japan III. The Hakkoda Mountains.Jap. J. Ecol. 37: 107–117 (in Japanese with English synopsis).

    Google Scholar 

  • Morita Y. (1992): Vegetational history during the last 12,000 years in the Hachimantai Mountains, northeast Japan.Jap. J. Palynol. 38: 180–191 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Morita Y. &Aizawa S. (1986): Pollen-analytical study on the vegetational history of the subalpine zone in the northern Tohoku district.Ann. Tohoku Geogr. Assoc. 38: 24–31 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Naito T. (1985):Fagus crenata. In:Naito T. (ed.),Life of plants, Kenseisya, Tokyo, pp. 141–175 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Naito T. &Iizumi S. (1987): Waldband und Vegetation im Tohoku-Gebiet. In:Miyawaki A. (ed.),Vegetation in Japan 8, Tohoku Shibundo, Tokyo, pp. 138–143 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Nakanishi S. &Nishimoto T. (1981): A study on forest zones in the Chugoku Mountains with a clue of the altitudinal distribution of the oak forest and beech forest in Mt. Mikawa.Hikobia Suppl. 1: 413–424 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Nakashizuka T. (1984): Regeneration process of climax beech (Fagus crenataBlume) forests IV. gap formation.Jap. J. Ecol. 34: 75–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nakashizuka T. (1987): Regeneration dynamics of beech forests in Japan.Vegetatio 69: 169–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nakashizuka T. (1994): Disturbance regimes of temperate deciduous forests in Japan. In:Proceedings of NAFRO seminar on sustainable forestry and its biological environment, pp. 103–107.

  • Nakashizuka T. &Iida S. (1995): Composition, dynamics and disturbance regime of temperate deciduous forests in Monsoon Asia.Vegetatio 121: 23–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nakashizuka T. &Numata M. (1982): Regeneration process of climax beech forests 1. Structure of a beech forest with the undergrowth ofSasa.Jap. J. Ecol. 32: 57–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nilsson S. G. &Wastljung U. (1987): Seed predation and cross-pollination in mast-seeding beech (Fagus sylvatica) patches.Ecology 68: 260–265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nozaki R. &Okutomi K. (1990): Geographical distribution and zonal interpretation of intermediate-temperate forests in eastern Japan.Jap. J. Ecol. 40: 57–69 (in Japanese with English synopsis).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ohba T. (1985): Beech forests in Japan and the world, and the vegetation. In:Umehara T. et al. (eds.),Beech zone culture, Shisaku-sya, Tokyo, pp. 201–230 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ohno K. &Ozeki T. (1997): Vegetation of Tanzawa Mountains (Advanced study on the Fagetea crenatae region). In:Scientific Reports on the Natural Environment of the Tanzawa and Ohyama Mountains, Kanagawa Prefecture, Yokohama, pp. 103–121 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ohsawa M. &Takiguchi S. (1987): Differentiation and biogeography toFagus climax in east Asia.Bull. Bot. Soc. Nagano 20: 26–30 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ohshima K. (1980a): Late Quaternary sea-level change recorded on the topographic features of several straits around the Okinawa islands.Quatern. Res. (Nagoya) 18: 251–257 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ohshima K. (1980b): Recording the late-Quaternary sea-level change on the topographic feature of the straits of the Japanese islands.Quatern. Res. (Nagoya) 19: 23–37 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ohshima K. (1982): Lowest Sea-level in the last glaciation of the Japanese islands.Quatern. Res. (Nagoya) 21: 211–222 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ohshima K. (1990): The history of straits around the Japanese islands in the late-Quaternary.Quatern. Res. (Nagoya) 29: 193–208 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ohta Y. (1984):Study of mice in Hokkaido. Hokkaido University Press, Sapporo (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ohwi J. (1972):Flora of Japan. Revised edition. Sibundo, Tokyo (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Onishi I. (1990): Floral change in coastal areas on the Western Japan Sea since the middle Pleistocene.Quatern. Res. (Nagoya) 29: 223–234 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ono Y. (1984): Last glacial paleoclimate reconstructed from glacial and periglacial landforms in Japan.Geogr. Rev. Jap. 57(Ser. B): 87–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Onodera H., Tanabe H., Kajimoto T. &Daimaru H. (1995): Snow dynamics and ecological characteristics of trees on snowy mountain slope.Jap. J. Forest. Environm. 37:59–66 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Otsu S. (1979): A study of food preference as an attraction bait for wild rat,Rattus argentivener in Indonesia.Jap. J. Appl. Entomol. Zool. 23: 207–211 (in Japansese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterken G. F. (1996): Natural woodland in Europe and North America. In:Peterken G.F. (ed.),Natural woodland, Ecology and conservation in northern temperate regions, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 33–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peters R. (1992):Ecology of beech forests in the northern hemisphere. Thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peters R. (1997):Beech forests. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.

    Google Scholar 

  • Runkle J. R. (1990): Gap dynamics in an OhioAcer-Fagus forest and speculations on the geography of disturbance.Canad. J. Forest Res. 20: 632–641.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sakai A. (1982):Freezing tolerance and cold adaptation of plants. Ecophysiology in winter. Gakkai Syuppan Center, Tokyo (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Sakaguchi U. (1994): Precious nature, the Oze moor. In:Nakamura K., Koike K. &Takeuchi K. (eds.),Nature in Japan (3), Kanto district, Iwanami-Syoten, Tokyo, pp. 32–44 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Sasaki Y. (1970): Versuch zur systematischen und geographischen Gliederung der Japanischen Buchenwaldgesellschaften.Vegetatio 20: 214–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw M. W. (1968): Factors affecting the natural regeneration of sessile oak (Quercus petraea) in north Wales. 2. Acorn losses and germination under field conditions.J. Ecol. 56: 647–660.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shimano K. (1996):Difference of regeneration dynamics between the Japan Sea type and the Pacific Ocean type beech (Fagus crenataBlume) forests. Doctoral thesis, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Chiba Univ., Chiba (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Shimano K. (1998): What prevents beech (Fagus crenata) from regenerating in Pacific Ocean type beech forest?J. Phytogeogr. Taxon. 46: 11–21 (in Japanese with English abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Shimano K. (1999a): Present and future states of beech forest on the Tanzawa mountains.Eco-Habitat 6: 103–111 (in Japanese with English synopsis).

    Google Scholar 

  • Shimano K. (1999b): The effects of snow upon Japan Sea type beech forests.J. Phytogeogr. Taxon. 47: 97–106 (in Japanese with English abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Shimano K. (2000a): A power function for forest structure and regeneration pattern of pioneer and climax species in patch mosaic forests.Pl. Ecol. 146: 205–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shimano K. (2000b): Safe sites of beech (Fagus crenata) seedlings improved by falling down dwarf bamboo due to snow accumulation in spring season.Veg. Sci. 17: 89–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shimano K. &Masuzawa T. (1995): Comparison of preservation ofFagus crenataBlume under different snow condition.J. Jap. Forest. Soc. 77: 79–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shimano K. &Masuzawa T. (1998): Effects of snow accumulation on survival of beech (Fagus crenata) seed.Pl. Ecol. 134: 235–242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shimano K., Masuzawa T. &Okitsu S. (1995): Effect of snow deposit on the seed disappearance ofFagus crenata Blume.Techn. Bull. Fac. Hort. Chiba Univ. 49: 111–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shimano K. &Okitsu S. (1993): Regeneration of mixedFagus crenata — Fagus japonica forests in meeting Mito, Okutama, west of Tokyo.Jap. J. Ecol. 43: 13–20 (in Japanese, with English synopsis).

    Google Scholar 

  • Shimano K. &Okitsu S. (1994): Regeneration of naturalFagus crenata forests around Kanto district.Jap. J. Ecol. 44: 283–291 (in Japanese with English synopsis).

    Google Scholar 

  • Silvertown J. W. (1982):Introduction to plant population ecology. Longman, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suzuki W. (1989): Fruiting cycle and local variation on seed production of Japanese beech (Fagus crenataBlume).Jap. J. Forest Environm. 31: 7–13 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Takahara H., Yamagushi H. &Takeoka M. (1989): Forest changes since the Late Glacial Period in the Hira mountains of the Kinki Region, Japan.J. Jap. Forest. Soc. 71: 223–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Takahashi K. (1960): Plant distribution and snow accumulation.Jap. J. Forest Environm. 2: 19–24 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Takahashi K. (1962): Studies on vertical distribution of the forest in middle Honshu.Bull. Gov. Forest Exp. Stat. 142: 1–171 (in Japanese with English résumé).

    Google Scholar 

  • Takatsuki S. (1992): Foot morphology and distribution of Sika deer in relation to snow depth in Japan.Ecol. Res. 7: 19–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Takatsuki S. &Gorai T. (1994): Effects of Sika deer on the regeneration of aFagus crenata forest on Kinkazan Island, northern Japan.Ecol. Res. 9: 115–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Takeuchi T. (1975):Method of seedling breeding for greenery-tree. Treatment of seed and tailoring of seedling. So-bun, Tokyo (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka J. (1887):Proofread report of Japanese plant zone. Interior Ministry of Japan, Tokyo (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka H. (1989): Pollen drafted by wind. In:Kawano S. (ed.),World of plants 4, Kyoikusha, Tokyo, pp. 32–37 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka N. (1986): Structure and regeneration of theFagus crenata-Abies mariesii forest.Bull. Tokyo Univ. Forests 75: 141–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka N. &Taoda H. (1996): Expansion of elevational distribution of beech (Fagus crenataBlume) along the climatic gradient from the Pacific Ocean to the Sea of Japan in Honshu, Japan. In:OmasaK. et al. (eds.),Climate change and plants in East Asia, Springer, New York, pp. 175–184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tanimoto T. (1994): Studies on the regeneration dynamics and its techniques for the restoration of beech (Fagus crenataBlume) forests (I). Nut production, dispersal and seedling survival in a canopy opening formation in Mt. Tateyama area, Toyama Pref., central Japan.Bull. Utsunomiya Univ. Forests 30: 1–18 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tanimoto T., Suzuki W. &Asanuma S. (1983): Relationship between dwarf bamboo structure and beech seedlings.Trans. Jap. Forest. Soc. 94: 375–378 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson D. C. &Thompson P. S. (1980): Food habits and cashing behavior of urban grey squirrels.Canad. J. Zool. 58: 701–710.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tohyama M. &Sakai A. (1993):Beech forests in Kanagawa. Report of Kanagawa Forest Foundation, Kanagawa Forest Foundation, Yokohama (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tokyo Regional Forest Office (1977):Tokyo-Eirinkyoku (Tokyo Regional Forest Office) statistical report in 1977. Tokyo Regional Forest Office, Tokyo (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsuji S., Miyaji N. &Yoshikawa M. (1983): Tephrostratigraphy and vegetation changes since latest Pleistocene time in the north Hakkoda mountains, northern Japan.Quatern. Res. (Nagoya) 21: 301–313 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsukada M. (1981): The last 12,000 years. The vegetation history of Japan. II. New pollen zones.Jap. J. Ecol. 31: 201–215 (in Japanese with English synopsis).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsukada M. (1982): Late-Quaternary shift ofFagus distribution.Bot. Mag. Tokyo 95: 203–217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsukada M. (1984): A vegetation map in the Japanese archipelago approximately 20,000 years B.P.Jap. J. Ecol. 34: 203–208 (in Japanese with English synopsis).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsukada M. (1988): Glacial and Holocene vegetation history -20ky to present. Japan. In:Huntley E. &Webb T. (eds.),Vegetation history, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp. 459–518.

    Google Scholar 

  • Uemura S., Takeda Y. &Nakanishi S. (1986): Behaviours of the main temperate plants in Hokkaido along climatic gradients.Jap. J. Ecol. 36: 141–152 (in Japanese with English synopsis).

    Google Scholar 

  • Uemura S. (1989): Snowcover as a factor controlling the distribution and speciation of forest plants.Vegetatio 82: 127–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vander Wall S. B. (1994): Removal of wind-dispersed pine seeds by ground-foraging vertebrates.Oikos 69: 125–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Voute A. D. (1946): Regulation of the density of the insect-population in Virgin-forest and cultivated woods.Arch. Neerl. Zool. 7: 435–470.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wada N. (1993): Dwarf bamboos affect the regeneration of zoochorous trees by providing habitats to acorn-feeding rodents.Oecologia 94: 403–407.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watt A.S. (1947): Pattern and process in the plant community.J. Ecol. 35: 664–685.

    Google Scholar 

  • Westoby M. (1984): The self-thinning rule.Advances Ecol. Res. 14: 167–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • White J. (1981): The allometric interpretation of the self-thinning rule.J. Theor. Biol. 89: 475–500.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yamamoto S-I. (1989): Gap dynamics in climaxFagus crenata forests.Bot. Mag. Tokyo 102: 93–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yamamoto T. (1980): Climate analysis in Japanese historical time.Weather 27: 77–85 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Yamanaka T. (1975):Seedling of plantation tree and its breeding. Seibundo-shinkosha, Tokyo (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Yamanaka T. (1979):Forest vegetation in Japan. Tsukiji-syokan, Tokyo.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yanagitani S-I., Kon T. &Konishi A. (1971): On the characteristics of floor plants and regeneration of Buna (Fagus crenata) natural forest-especially on sasa plants.Jap. J. Forest. Soc. 53: 146–148 (in Japanese with English abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Yasuda Y. (1978): Vegetation history and paleogeography of the Kawachi plain for the last 13,000 years.Quatern. Res. (Nagoya) 16: 211–229 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Yasuda Y. (1983): Climate change in and after the last glacial age with the analysis of sedimentation.Study Note Meteorol. 147: 613–626 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Yasuda Y. (1985): Natural histories and cultures in beech forests between the East and the West. In:Umehara T. et al. (eds.),Beech zone culture, Shisaku-sya, Tokyo, pp. 29–63 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

  • Yasuda Y. (1987): The cold climate of the last glacial age in Japan. A comparison with southern Europe.Quatern. Res. (Nagoya) 25: 277–294 (in Japanese with English summary).

    Google Scholar 

  • Yasuda Y. &Narita K. (1981): Calculated thermal index maps for the reconstruction of past vegetation since the last glacial age in Japan.Geogr. Rev. Jap. 54: 369–381.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yoda K., Kira T., Ogawa H. &Hozumi K. (1963): Self-thinning in overcrowded pure stands under cultivated and natural conditions.J. Biol. Osaka City Univ. 14: 107–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yoshino M. (1982): Japanese past climate in historic time.Meteorology 26: 6709–6713 (in Japanese).

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Science, Shinshu University, Asahi 3-1-1, 390-8621, Matsumoto City, Nagano Pref., Japan

    Koji Shimano

Authors
  1. Koji Shimano
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Koji Shimano.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Shimano, K. Regeneration dynamics, causal factors, and characteristics of pacific ocean-type beech (Fagus crenata) forests in Japan: A review. Folia Geobot 37, 275–296 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02805212

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02805212

Keywords

Search

Navigation