Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Perfectionism, life events, and depressive symptoms: A test of a diathesis-stress model

  • Articles
  • Published:
Current Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The present research tested the hypothesis that perfectionists who experience stress are vulnerable to depression, in part because negative life events represent a failure to maintain control over negative outcomes. In Study 1, 215 subjects completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and control measures. The MPS assesses self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism. It was confirmed that self-oriented and other-oriented perfectionism were associated with both higher desire for control and greater perceived personal control. Study 2 examined whether trait levels of perfectionism moderate the link between life stress and symptoms of depression. In addition, prospective analyses investigated whether perfectionism accounts for changes in levels of depressive symptomatology over time. Two samples comprised of 374 students (Sample 1) and 173 students (Sample 2) completed the MPS and measures of major life stress and depression symptoms. Subjects in Sample 2 completed these measures at two timepoints separated by a three-month interval. Regression analyses indicated that self-oriented perfectionism and life stress interact significantly to produce higher levels of depressive symptomatology. Moreover, in Sample 2, self-oriented perfectionism at Time 1 was associated with increases in depression symptoms three months later for those individuals who had experienced a major life event. The results provide support for diathesis-stress models, which maintain that perfectionists exposed to life stress are vulnerable to symptoms of depression. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for the study of personality, stress, and vulnerability to symptoms of depression.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bandura, A. (1986).Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1989). Self-regulation of motivation and action through internal standards and goal systems. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.),Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (pp. 19–85). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. (1990). Suicide as escape from self.Psychological Review, 97, 90–113.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1967).Depression: Clinical, experimental, and theoretical aspects. New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1983). Cognitive therapy of depression: New perspectives. In P. J. Clayton & J. E. Barrett (Eds.),Treatment of depression: Old controversies and new approaches (pp. 265–290). New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979).Cognitive therapy of depression: A treatment manual. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Garbin, M. G. (1988). Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty-five years of evaluation.Clinical Psychology Review, 8, 77–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blatt, S. J., Quinlan, D. M., Chevron, E. S., McDonald, C., & Zuroff, D. C. (1982). Dependency and self-criticism: Psychological dimensions of depression.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 113–124.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. D., & Siegel, J. M. (1988). Attributions for negative life events and depression: The role of perceived control.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 316–322.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bumberry, W., Oliver, J. M., & McClure, J. N. (1978). Validation of the Beck Depression Inventory in a university population using psychiatric estimate as the criterion.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 150–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burger, J. M. (1984). Desire for control, locus of control, and proneness to depression.Journal of Personality, 52, 71–89.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burger, J. M. (1985). Desire for control and achievement-related behaviors.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 1520–1533.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burger, J. M. (1987). Desire for control and conformity to a perceived norm.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 355–360.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burger, J. M. (1989). Negative reactions to increases in perceived personal control.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 246–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burger, J. M. (1990). Desire for control and interpersonal interaction style.Journal of Research in Personality, 24, 32–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burger, J. M., & Cooper, H. M. (1979). The desirability of control.Motivation and Emotion, 3, 381–393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burns, D. D. (1980).Feeling good: The new mood therapy. New York: The New American Library.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burns, D. D., & Beck, A. T. (1978). Cognitive behavior modification of mood disorders. In J. P. Foreyt & D. P. Rathjen (Eds.),Cognitive behavior therapy: Research and application (pp. 109–134). New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carson, R. C. (1989). Personality.Annual Review of Psychology, 40, 227–248.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chaplin, W. F. (1991). The next generation of moderator research in personality.Journal of Personality, 59, 143–179.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, D. A., & Beck, A. T. (1991). Personality factors in dysphoria: A psychometric refinement of Beck’s Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale.Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 13, 369–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, D. A., Beck, A. T., & Stewart, B. (1990). Cognitive specificity and positive-negative affectivity: Complementary or contradictory views on anxiety and depression?Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 148–155.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, L. A., Watson, D., & Mineka, S. (1994). Temperament, personality, and the mood and anxiety disorders.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 103–116.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., & Edwards, J. (1989). Personality characteristics as moderators of the relationship between stress and disorder. In R. Neufeld (Ed.),Advances in the investigation of psychological stress (pp. 235–283). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1990). Personality: Another “hidden factor” in stress research.Psychological Inquiry, 1, 22–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeLongis, A., Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1988). The impact of daily stress on health and mood: Psychological and social resources as mediators.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 486–495.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Depue, R. A., & Monroe, S. M. (1986). Conceptualization and measurement of human disorder in life stress research: The problem of chronic disturbance.Psychological Bulletin, 99, 36–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dohrenwend, B. P., Raphael, K. G., Schwartz, S., Stueve, A., & Stokol, A. (1993). The structured event probe and narrative rating method for measuring stressful life events. In L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Eds.),Handbook of stress: Theoretical and clinical aspects (pp. 174–199). New York: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dohrenwend, B. P., & Shrout, P. E. (1985). “Hassles” in the conceptualization and measurement of life stress variables.American Psychologist, 40, 780–785.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flett, G. L., Blankstein, K. R., Hewitt, P. L., & Obertynski, M. (1994). Personality and coping in depression: A comparison of sociotropy, autonomy, and perfectionism.Convention Proceedings For The 28th Annual Convention of the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy, 268 (Abstract).

  • Flett, G. L., Blankstein, K. R., Occhiuto, M., & Koledin, S. (1994). Depression, self-esteem, and complex attributions for life problems.Current Psychology, 13, 263–281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., Blankstein, K. R., & Dynin, C. (1994). Dimensions of perfectionism and Type A behaviour.Personality and Individual Differences, 16, 477–485.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., Blankstein, K. R., & Koledin, S. (1991). Dimensions of perfectionism and irrational thinking.Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 9, 185–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., Blankstein, K. R., & Mosher, S. W. (1991). Perfectionism, self-actualization, and personal adjustment.Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 6, 147–160.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., Blankstein, K. R., & O’Brien, S. (1991). Perfectionism and learned resourcefulness in depression and self-esteem.Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 61–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., Endler, N. S., & Tassone, C. (1995). Perfectionism and components of state and trait anxiety.Current Psychology, 13, 326–350.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., & Mittelstaedt, W. (1991). Dysphoria and components of self-punitiveness: A re-analysis.Cognitive Therapy and Research, 15, 201–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flett, G. L., Pliner, P., & Blankstein, K. R. (1989). Depression and components of attributional complexity.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 757–764.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flett, G. L., Russo, F. A., & Hewitt, P. L. (in press). Dimensions of perfectionism and constructive thinking as a coping response.Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive Behavior Therapy.

  • Frost, R. O., Heimberg, R., Holt, C., Mattia, J., & Neubauer, A. (1993). A comparison of two measures of perfectionism.Personality and Individual Differences, 14, 119–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frost, R. O., & Marten, P. A. (1990). Perfectionism and evaluative threat.Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 559–572.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frost, R. O., Marten, P. A., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism.Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 449–468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ganellen, R. J., & Blaney, P. H. (1984). Stress, externality, and depression.Journal of Personality, 52, 326–335.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, P., & Reynolds, S. (1990). The relationship between the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire and Beck’s concepts of sociotropy and autonomy.British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 29, 319–325.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haaga, D. A. F., Dyck, M. J., & Ernst, D. (1991). Empirical status of cognitive theory of depression.Psychological Bulletin, 110, 215–236.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamachek, D. E. (1978). Psychodynamics of normal and neurotic perfectionism.Psychology, 15, 27–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammen, C., Ellicott, A., & Gitlin, M. (1992). Stressors and sociotropy/autonomy: A longitudinal study of their relationship to the course of bipolar disorder.Cognitive Therapy and Research, 16, 409–418.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, P. L., & Dyck, D. G. (1986). Perfectionism, stress, and vulnerability to depression.Cognitive Therapy and Research, 10, 137–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (1989). The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale: Development and validation.Canadian Psychology, 30, 339 (Abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (1990). Perfectionism and depression: A multidimensional analysis.Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 5, 423–438.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (1991a). Dimensions of perfectionism in unipolar depression.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 98–101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (1991b). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (1993a). Dimensions of perfectionism, daily stress, and depression: A test of the specific vulnerability hypothesis.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 58–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (1993b). Perfectionism and goal orientation in impulsive and suicidal behavior. In W. McCown, M. Shure, & J. Johnson (Eds.),The impulsive client: Theory, research and treatment (pp. 247–263). Arlington, VA: American Psychological Association Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., & Blankstein, K. R. (1991). Perfectionism and neuroticism in psychiatric patients and college students.Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 273–279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., & Endler, N. S. (in press). Perfectionism, coping, and depression symptomatology in a clinical sample.Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy.

  • Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., & Turnbull-Donovan, W. (1992). Perfectionism and suicidal potential.British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31, 181–190.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., Turnbull-Donovan, W., & Mikail, S. (1991). The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale: Reliability, validity, and psychometric properties in psychiatric samples.Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 3, 464–468.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., & Weber, C. (1994). Perfectionism, hopelessness, and suicide ideation.Cognitive Therapy and Research, 18, 439–460.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, P. L., & Genest, M. (1990). The ideal-self: Schematic processing of perfectionistic content in dysphoric university students.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 802–808.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, P. L., Mittelstaedt, W., & Flett, G. L. (1990). Self-oriented perfectionism and performance importance in subclinical depression.Individual Psychology, 46, 67–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, P. L., Mittelstaedt, W., & Wollert, R. (1989). Validation of a measure of perfectionism.Journal of Personality Assessment, 53, 133–144.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, J. H., & Sarason, I. G. (1978). Life stress, depression, and anxiety: Internal-external control as a moderator variable.Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 22, 205–208.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kanfer, F. H., & Hagerman, S. (1981). The role of self-regulation. In L. Rehm (Ed.),Behavior therapy for depression: Present status and future directions (pp. 143–179). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krantz, S. E., & Rude, S. S. (1984). Depressive attribution: Selection of different causes or assignment of dimensional meanings?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 193–203.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S. (1990). Theory-based stress measurement.Psychological Inquiry, 1, 3–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, T. R., Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., Krames, L., & Szantos, G. (1994).Personality correlates of depression and health symptoms: A test of a self-regulation model. Manuscript submitted for publication.

  • McClelland, G. H., & Judd, C. M. (1993). Statistical difficulties of detecting interactions and moderator effects.Psychological Bulletin, 114, 376–390.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, C. A., & Barrow, J. C. (1986). Perfectionistic thinking in university students: Implications for individual treatment. In J. E. Talley & W. J. K. Rockwell (Eds.),Counseling and psychotherapy with college students (pp. 100–112). New York: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mueller, D. P., Edwards, D. W., & Yarvis, R. M. (1977). Stressful life events and psychiatric symptomatology: Change or undesirability.Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 18, 307–317.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Musson, R. F., & Alloy, L. B. (1988). Depression and self-focused attention. In L. B. Alloy (Ed.),Cognitive processes in depression (pp. 193–220). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nezu, A. M. (1986). Effects of stress from current problems: Comparison to major life events.Journal of Clinical Psychology, 42, 847–852.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nietzel, M. T., & Harris, M. J. (1990). Relationship of dependency and achievement/autonomy to depression.Clinical Psychology Review, 10, 279–297.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pacht, A. R. (1984). Reflections on perfection.American Psychologist, 39, 386–390.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paulhus, D. L. (1983). Sphere specific measures of perceived control.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 1253–1265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paulhus, D. L., & Christie, R. (1981). Spheres of control: An interactionist approach to assessment of perceived control. In H. M. Lefcourt (Ed.),Research with the locus of control construct, Vol. 1 Assessment methods (pp. 161–188). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paulhus, D. L., & Van Selst, M. (1990). The Spheres of Control Scale: 10 yrs. of research.Personality and Individual Differences, 11, 1029–1036.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pirot, M. (1986). The pathological thought and dynamics of the perfectionist.Individual Psychology, 42, 51–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, S., & Gilbert, P. (1991). Psychological impact of unemployment: Interactive effects of vulnerability and protective factors on depression.Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 76–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riskind, J. H., Rholes, W. S., Brannon, A. M., & Burdick, C. A. (1987). Attributions and expectations: A confluence of vulnerabilities in mild depression in a college student population.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 349–354.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement.Psychological Monographs, 80, (Whole No. 609).

  • Rude, S. S. (1989). Dimensions of self-control in a sample of depressed women.Cognitive Therapy and Research, 13, 363–375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rude, S. S., & Burnham, B. L. (1993). Do interpersonal and achievement vulnerabilities interact with congruent events to predict depression? Comparison of DEQ, SAS, DAS, and combined scales.Cognitive Therapy and Research, 17, 531–548.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarason, I. G., Johnson, J. H., & Siegel, J. M. (1978). Assessing the impact of life changes: Development of the Life Experiences Survey.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 932–946.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, T. W., O’Keeffe, J. L., & Jenkins, M. (1988). Dependency and self-criticism: Correlates of depression or moderators of the effects of stressful events.Journal of Personality Disorders, 2, 160–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vinokur, A., & Seltzer, M. L. (1975). Desirable versus undesirable life events: Their relationship to stress and mental distress.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 329–337.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vredenburg, K., Flett, G. L., & Krames, L. (1993). Analogue versus clinical depression: A critical reappraisal.Psychological Bulletin, 113, 327–344.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D. (1990). On the dispositional nature of stress measures: Stable and nonspecific influences on self-reported hassles.Psychological Inquiry, 1, 34–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, York University, Behavioural Sciences Building, 4700 Keele Street, M3J 1P3, North York, Ontario, Canada

    Gordon L. Flett

  2. University of British Columbia, Canada

    Paul L. Hewitt

  3. Erindale College, University of Toronto, Canada

    Kirk R. Blankstein

  4. York University, UK

    Shawn W. Mosher

Authors
  1. Gordon L. Flett
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Paul L. Hewitt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kirk R. Blankstein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Shawn W. Mosher
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Additional information

This research was supported by grants #410-89-0335, #410-91-8056, and #410-93-1256 from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada awarded to the authors.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Flett, G.L., Hewitt, P.L., Blankstein, K.R. et al. Perfectionism, life events, and depressive symptoms: A test of a diathesis-stress model. Current Psychology 14, 112–137 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02686885

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02686885

Keywords

Search

Navigation