Abstract
The electrical properties of pacemaker electrodes were studiedin vitro under conditions prevailing in practical pacemaker operation. Emphasis was laid on a clear distinction between the changing modes of the pacemaker action. During sensing, the electrode can be represented by an a.c. series polarisation resistance and capacitance, generally accepted for biological electrodes obeying linearity rules. During stimulation, the electrode operates in the non-linear region. A nearly constant-voltage, short, rectangular pulse applied directly to the electrode-heart system, causes the electrode voltage and current to respond as a transient exponential, characterised approximately by a single time constant. This response allows modelling of the d.c. equivalent circuit of the electrode, in the form of a polarisation capacitance with a small resistance in series, shunted by a parallel resistance. Formulae were derived for calculation of these elements. The response of the electrode-heart system to a single stimulus was tested as a function of the amplitude and duration of the applied pulse. Also, the effect of repetitive stimulations was checked at a normal pacing rate. A nearly constant-voltage pacing source, as compared with a constant-current one, appears to be advantageous for preservation of the longevity of the electrode.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
De Boer, R. W. andVan Oosterom, A. (1978) Electrical properties of platinum electrodes: impedance measurements and time-domain analysis.Med. & Biol. Eng. & Comput.,16, 1–10.
Charterjee, K., Sutton, R. andDavis, J. G. (1968) Low intracardiac potentials in myocardial infraction as a cause of failure of inhibition of demand pacemakers.Lancet,1, 511.
Cole, K. S. andCole, R. H. (1941) Dispersion and absorption in dielectrics: I. Alternating current characteristics.J. Chem. Phys.,9, 341–351.
Dymond, A. M. (1976) Characteristics of the metal-tissue interface of stimulation electrodes.IEEE Trans. Bio-med. Engng.,BME-23, 274–280.
Fischler, H. (1979) Polarisation properties of small surface-area pacemaker electrodes — implications on reliability of sensing and pacing.Pace,2, 403–416.
Fricke, H. (1932) The theory of electrolytic polarizationPhil. Mag.,14, 310–318.
Furman, S., Hurzeller, P. andDe Caprio, V. (1977) Cardiac pacing and pacemakers III. Sensing the cardiac electrogram. In: A. C. de Graff and J. Frieden (Eds.), Appraisal and reappraisal for cardiac therapy.Am. Heart. J.,93, 794–801.
Geddes, L. A. (1972)Electrodes and the measurement of bioelectric events. Wiley-Interscience, New York, London, Sydney, Toronto, pp. 14–36.
Gordon, A. J., Vagueiro, M. C. andBarold, S. S. (1968) Electricardial electrograms from pacemaker catheters.Circulation,38, 82–89.
Grahame, D. C. (1952) Mathematical theory of the faradaic admittance.Electrochem. Soc.,99, 370C-385C.
Greatbatch, W. andChardack, W. M. (1968) Myocardial and endocradiac electrodes for chromic implantation.Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci.,148 (1), 234–251.
Greatbatch, W., Piersma, B., Shannon, F. D. andCalhoon, Jr., S. W. (1969) Potarization phenomena relating to physiological electrodes.Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci.,167, 722–744.
Jaron, D., Briller, S. A., Schwan, H. P. andGeselowitz, D. B. (1969) Non-linearity of cardiac pacemaker electrodes.IEEE Trans. Bio-Med. Eng.,BME-16, 132–138.
Jaron, D., Schwan, H. P. andGeselowtiz, D. B. (1968) A mathematical model for the polarization impedance of cardiac pacemaker electrodes.Med. & Biol. Engng.,6, 579–593.
Lampadius, M. andPrauer, H. (1977) Frequency analysis comparison of intracardiac signals with test signals.Pacemaker Digest, No. 10.
Mansfield, P. B. (1967) Myocardial stimulation: the electrochemistry of electrode-tissue coupling.Am. J. Physiol.,212 (6): 1475–1488.
Mears, R. B. andBrown, R. H. (1941) Causes of corrosion currents.Ind. Eng. Chem. Ind. Edn.,33: 1001–1010.
Myers, G. H., Kresh, Y. M. andParsonnet, V. (1978) Characteristics of intracardiac electrograms.Pace,1: 90–103.
Parker, B., Furman, S. andEscher, D. J. W. (1969) Input signals to pacemakers in a hospital environment.Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci.,167: 823–834.
Pollak, V. (1974) An equivalent diagram for the interface impedance of metal needle electrodes.Med. & Biol. Eng.,12, 454–459.
Von Schaldack, M., Blaser, R. andThull, R. (1973) Energiesparende Reizelectrodensysteme für die Organstimulation.Berichte der Bunsen-Gesellschaft,77, (10/11), 790–794.
Schwan, H. P. (1963) Determination of biological impedances.Phys. Techn. Biol. Res.,6, 323–406.
Schwan, H. P. (1968) Electrode polarization impedance and measurements in biological materials.Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci.,148 (1), 191–209.
Schwan, H. P. andKay, C. F. (1957) The conductivity of living tissues.Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci.,65, 1007–1013.
Weinman, J. andMahler, J. (1964) An analysis of electrical properties of metal electrodes.Med. Electron. & Biol. Eng.,2, 299–310.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Fischler, H., Schwan, H.P. Polarisation impendance of pacemaker electrodes:in vitro studies simulating practical operation. Med. Biol. Eng. Comput. 19, 579–588 (1981). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02442772
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02442772