Abstract
While the level of agricultural dependence affects many aspects of human adaptation, estimating levels of dependence on maize through traditional archaeological techniques is problematic. Here we compare various measurements of manos (e.g., grinding surface area), macrobotanical evidence of maize use, and human collagen stable carbon isotope values from six regions of the American Southwest, encompassing 16 phases, as a means of assessing the power and limits of each approach for considering agricultural dependence. The analysis of each data class is considered separately, taking into account formation processes and arguments linking data and inferences. Correlations among the three data classes suggest that mano area and maize ubiquity can be considered ordinal measures of agricultural dependence, but Southwestern stable carbon isotope data have the analytical potential only to discriminate between little or no maize use and substantial maize use. The formation processes and linking arguments associated with each method must be considered when multiple lines of evidence are integrated in order to make sound behavioral inferences. Our results suggest that there were at least three patterns in the adoption of farming in the Southwest: early substantial use followed by continuous increasing maize dependence, initial intensive dependence with little change in later periods, and a long period of minor use followed by substantial dependence.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References cited
Aasen, D. K. (1984).Pollen, Macrofossil and Charcoal Analyses of Basketmaker Coprolites from Turkey Pen Ruin, Cedar Mesa, Utah, Unpublished master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman.
Adams, J. L. (1988). Use-wear analysis on manos and hide-processing stones.Journal of Field Archaeology 15: 331–344.
Adams, J. L. (1989). Methods for improving the analysis of ground stone artifacts: Experiments in mano wear pattern analysis. In Amick, D. S., and Mauldin, R. P. (eds.),Experiments in Lithic Technology, BAR International Series 528, Oxford, England, pp. 259–276.
Adams, J. L. (1993). Toward understanding the technological development of manos and metates.Kiva,58(3): 331–344.
Adams, J. L. (1994). TheDevelopment of Prehistoric Grinding Technology in the Point of Pines Area, East-Central Arizona, Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson.
Adams, J. L. (1996). Refocussing the role of food grinding tools as correlates for the subsistence strategies of gatherers and early agriculturalists in the American Southwest. Paper presented at the Society for American Archaeology Meetings, New Orleans, April. 1996.
Adams, K. R. (1987). Domesticated and native plants recovered from the robinson pueblo and other regional sites in the Capitan, New Mexico area. Manuscript in possession of author, Crow Canyon Archaeological Center, Cortez, CO.
Adams, K. R. (1991). Domesticated and native plants recovered from Robinson Pueblo and other regional sites in the Capitan area of New Mexico. In Beckett, P. H. (ed.),Mogollon V, COAS, Las Cruces, NM, pp. 220–228.
Albert, L. E., and Wyckoff, D. G. (1984). Oklahoma environments: Past and present. In Bell, R. E. (ed.),Prehistory of Oklahoma, Academic Press, New York, pp. 1–43.
Ambrose, S. H. (1987). Chemical and isotopic techniques of diet reconstruction in eastern North America. In Keegan, W. F. (ed.),Emergent Horticultural Economies of the Eastern Woodlands, Center for Archaeological Investigations, Occasional Paper No. 7, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, pp. 78–107.
Ambrose, S. H., and Norr, L. (1993). Experimental evidence for the relationship of the carbon isotope ratios of whole diet and dietary protein to those of bone collagen and carbonate. In Lambert, J. B., and Grupe, G. (eds.),Prehistoric Human Bone—Archaeology at the Molecular Level, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 1–37.
Amsden, C. A. (1949).Prehistoric Southwesterners from Basketmaker to Pueblo, Southwest Museum, Los Angeles.
Amundson, R. G., Chadwick, O. A., Sowers, J. M., and Doner H. E. (1988). Relationship between climate and vegetation and the stable carbon isotope chemistry of soils in the eastern Mojave Desert, Nevada.Quaternary Research 29: 245–254.
Andreasen, A. H. M. (1957). The principle of similarity applied to mills and to the grinding process.Transactions of the Institution of Chemical Engineers 35: pp. 104–110.
Arthur, J. W. (1994).Ceramic Function During the Early Pithouse Period in the Mimbres River Valley, Unpublished master's thesis, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio.
Bartlett, K. (1933).Pueblo Milling Stones of the Flagstaff Region and Their Relation to Others in the Southwest, Museum of Northern Arizona Bulletin3, Northern Arizona Society of Science and Art, Flagstaff.
Bauer, A. J. (1990). Millers and grinders: Technology and household economy in Meso-America.Agricultural History 64: 1–17.
Bender, M. M., Rouhani, I., Vines, H. M., and Black, C. C. (1973).13C/12C ratio changes in crassulacean acid metabolism plants.Plant Physiology 52: 427–430.
Bender, M., Baerreis, D. A., and Stevenson, R. L. (1981). Further light on carbon isotopes and hopewell agriculture.American Antiquity 46: 346–353.
Binford, L. R. (1978).Nunamiut Ethnoarchaeology, Studies in Archaeology Series, Academic Press, New York.
Binford, L. R. (1981).Bones: Ancient Men and Modern Myths, Academic Press, New York.
Binford, L. R. (1983).In Pursuit of the Past:Decoding the Archaeological Record, Thames and Hudson, London.
Binford, L. R. (1989). Researching ambiguity: Frames of reference and site structure. In Binford, L. R. (ed.),Debating Archaeology, Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 223–263.
Birkedal, T. (1976).Basketmaker III Residence Units: A Study of Prehistoric Social Organization in the Mesa Verde Archaeological District, Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Colorado, Boulder.
Black, C. C. (1971). Ecological implications of dividing plants into groups with distinct photosynthetic production capacities. In Cragg, J. B. (ed.),Advances in Ecological Research, Vol 7, Academic Press, New York, pp. 87–114.
Black, C. C. (1973). Photosynthetic carbon fixation in relation to net CO2 uptake.Annual Review of Plant Physiology 24: 253–286.
Black, C. C., and Williams, S. (1975). Plants exhibiting characteristics common to crassulacean acid metabolism. In Burris, R. H., and Black, C. C. (eds.),CO2 Metabolism and Plant Productivity, University Park Press, Baltimore, pp. 407–424.
Black, S. (1995). Hot rocks, black holes, and fruitful dirt: burned rock midden sites on and near the Edwards Plateau. Paper presented at the 66th Annual Meeting of the Texas Archaeological Society, Nacogdoches.
Boutton, T. W., Klein, P. D., Lynott, M. J., Price, J. E., and Tieszen, L. L. (1984). Stable carbon isotope ratios as indicators of prehistoric diet. In Turnlund, J. R., and Johnson, P. E. (eds.),Stable Isotopes in Nutrition, ACS Symposium Series 228, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, pp. 191–204.
Brand, M. J. (1994).Prehistoric Anasazi Diet: A Synthesis of Archaeological Evidence, M.A. thesis, Department of Anthropology and Sociology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver.
Braun, D. P. (1983). Pots as tools. In Moore, J., and Keene, A. (eds.),Archaeological Hammers and Theories, Academic Press, New York, pp. 107–134.
Brooks, R. L. (1994). Southern plains cultural complexes. In Owsley, D. W., and Jantz, R. L. (eds.),Skeletal Biology in the Great Plains: Migration, Warfare, Health, and Subsistence, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, pp. 33–50.
Browning, C., Sale, M., Kirkpatrick, D. T., and Laumbach, K. W. (1992). Motr site: Excavation at site LA 72859, An El Paso phase structure on Fort Bliss, Otero County, New Mexico. White Sands Missile Range Archaeological Report No. 92-10, Human Systems Research, Inc., Tularosa, NM.
Bryant, V. M., Jr. (1974). The role of coprolite analysis in archeology.Bulletin of the Texas Archeological Society 45: 1–28.
Buikstra, J. E., Bullington, J., Charles, D. K., Cook, D. C., Frankenberg, S. R., Konigsberg, L. W., Lambert, J. B., and Xue, L. (1987). Diet, demography, and the development of horticulture. In Keegan, W. (ed.),Emergent Horticultural Economies of the Eastern Woodlands, Center for Archaeological Investigations, Occasional Paper No. 7, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, pp. 67–85.
Bumstead, M. P. (1985). Past behavior from bone chemical analysis—respects and prospects.Journal of Human Evolution 14: 539–551.
Calamia, M. A. (1991). Ground stone variability among Jornada Mogollon sites and its implications for interpreting residential mobility. In Beckett, P. H. (ed.),Mogollon V, COAS, Las Cruces, NM, pp. 119–132.
Callen, E. O. (1967). Analysis of the Tehuacan coprolites. In Byers, D. S. (ed.),The Prehistory of the Tehuacan Valley, Vol 1: Environment and Subsistence, University of Texas Press, Austin, pp. 261–289.
Camilli, E. L. (1983).Site Occupational History and Lithic Assemblage Structure: An Example from Southeastern Utah, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.
Cane, S. (1987). Austalian aboriginal seed grinding and its archaeological record: A case study from the western desert. In Harris, D. R., and Hillman, G. C. (eds.),Foraging and Farming: The Evolution of Plant Exploitation, One World Archaeology Series 13, Unwin Hyman, London, pp. 99–119.
Cargill, D. A. (1996).Stable Isotope Analysis at Mission San Juan De Capistrano, San Antonio, Texas, M.A. thesis, Division of Behavioral and Cultural Sciences, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio.
Carmichael, D. (1986).Archaeological Survey in the Southern Tularosa Basin of New Mexico, Publications in Anthropology No. 10, El Paso Centennial Museum, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso.
Carneiro, R. L. (1970). A theory on the origin of the state.Science 169: 733–738.
Chisholm, B., and Matson, R. G. (1994). Carbon and nitrogen isotopic evidence on Basketmaker II diet at Cedar Mesa, Utah.Kiva 60: 239–255.
Christenson, A. L. (1987). The prehistoric tool kit. In Parry, W. J., and Christenson, A. L. (eds.),Prehistoric Stone Technology on Northern Black Mesa, Arizona, Occasional Paper No. 12, Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, pp. 43–93.
Christenson, A. L., and Parry, W. J. (eds.) (1985).Excavations on Black Mesa, 1983: A Descriptive Report, Research Paper No. 46, Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.
Cook, S. (1982).Zapotec Stoneworkers: The Dynamics of Rural Simple Commodity Production in Modern Mexican Capitalism, University Press of America, Lanham.
Cordell, L. S. (1984).Prehistory of the Southwest, Academic Press, New York.
Cordell, L. S., and Plog, F. (1979). Escaping the confines of normative thought: A reevaluation of Puebloan prehistory.American Antiquity 44: 405–429.
Cowan, C. W., and Watson, P. J. (1992).The Origins of Agriculture: An International Perspective, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
Cummings, L. S. (1995). Agriculture and the Mesa Verde area Anasazi diet: Description and nutritional analysis. In Toll, H. W. (ed.),Soil, Water, Biology, and Belief in Prehistoric and Traditional Southwestern Agriculture, New Mexico Archaeological Council, Special Publication 2, Albuquerque, pp. 335–352.
Cushing, F. H. (1920). Zuni breadstuff.Museum of the American Indian Notes and Monographs 8.
Deal, M. (1985). Household pottery disposal in the Maya highlands: An ethnoarchaeological interpretation.Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 4: 243–291.
Dean, G. (1986). The Archeobotany of Landergin Area. Manuscript on file, Office of the State Archeologist, Texas Historical Commission, Austin.
Dean, J. S. (1978). Independent dating in archeological analysis. In Schiffer, M. B. (ed.),Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, Vol. 1, Academic Press, New York, pp. 223–255.
Decker, K. W., and Tieszen, L. L. (1989). Isotopic reconstruction of Mesa Verde diet from Basketmaker III to Pueblo III.Kiva 55: 33–46.
DeGarmo, G. D. (1975).Coyote Creek, Site 01: A Methodological Study of a Prehistoric Pueblo Population, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles.
DeNiro, M. J. (1987). Stable isotopy and archaeology.American Scientist 75: 182–191.
DeNiro, M. J., and Epstein, S. (1978). Influences of diet on the distribution of carbon isotopes in animals.Geochemica et Cosmochemica Acta 42: 495–506.
Dering, J. P. (1995). Plant remains from a late archaic crescent midden in Hinds Cave (41VV456), Val Verde County, Texas. Texas Archaeological Society Meeting, Nacogdoches, Nov.
Diehl, M. W. (1996). The intensity of maize processing and production in upland Mogollon pithouse villages A.D. 200–1000.American Antiquity 61: 102–115.
Dohm, K. M. (1988).The Household in Transition: Spatial Organization of Early Anasazi Residential-Domestic Units, Southeastern Utah, Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman.
Doleman, W. H., Chapman, R. C., Schutt, J. A., Swift, M. K., and Morrison, K. D. (eds.) (1991).Landscape Archaeology in the Southern Tularosa Basin, Vol 2. Testing, Excavation, and Analysis, WSMR Archaeological Report No. 91-9, Office of Contract Archaeology, University of New Mexico No. 185-324E, Prepared for U.S. Army Engineer District, Fort Worth, Contract No. DACA63-91-C-0100.
Donoghue, D. (1989). Carbonised plant macrofossils. In Beck, W., Clarke, A., and Head, L. (eds.),Tempus: Archaeology and Material Culture Studies in Anthropology, Vol. 1. Plants in Australian Archaeology, Watson Ferguson, Brisbane, pp. 90–110.
Durst, J. (1995). A comparative analysis of pit features in the Jornada Mogollon. Paper presented at Jornada Mogollon Conference IX, El Paso, Tx.
Ehleringer, J. R. (1989). Carbon isotope ratios and physiological processes in aridland plants. In Rundel, P. W., Ehleringer, J. R., and Nagy, K. A. (eds.),Stable Isotopes in Ecological Research, Springer Velag, New York, pp. 41–54.
El-Najjar, M. Y., Ryan, D. J., Turner, C. G., III, and Lozoff, B. (1976). The etiology of porotic hyperstosis among the prehistoric and historic Anasazi indians of southwestern United States.American Journal of Physical Anthropology 44: 477–488.
Euler, R. C., and Dodyns, H. F. (1983). The ethnoarchaeology of Pai milling stones. In Fox, N. L. (ed.),Collected Papers in Honor of Charlie R. Steen, Jr., Papers of the Archaeological Society of New Mexico No. 8, Albuquerque, pp. 253–267.
Ezzo, J. A. (1992). A test of diet versus diagnenesis at Ventana Cave, Arizona.Journal of Archaeological Science 19: 23–37.
Farnsworth, P., Brady, J. E., DeNiro, M. J., and MacNeish, R. S. (1985). A re-evaluation of the isotopic and archaeological reconstructions of diet in the Tehuacan Valley.American Antiquity 50: 102–116.
Flint, P. R., and Neusius, S. W. (1987). Cottontail procurement among Dolores Anasazi. InDolores Archaeological Program: Supporting Studies: Settlement and Environment, University of Colorado Dolores Archaeological Program, United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Engineering and Research Center, Denver, pp. 257–273.
Ford, R. I. (1977). Archeobotany of the Fort Bliss Maneuver Area II, Texas. In Whalen, M. (ed.),Settlement Patterns of the Eastern Hueco Bolson, Anthropological Papers No. 4, Centennial Museum, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, pp. 199–205.
Ford, R. I. (1979). Paleoethnobotany in American archaeology. In Schiffer, M. B. (ed.),Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, Vol. 2, Academic Press, New York, pp. 285–336.
Ford, R. I. (1988). Commentary: Little things mean a lot-quantification and qualification in paleoethnobotany. In Hastorf, C. A., and Popper, V. S. (eds.),Current Paleoethnobotany: Analytical Methods and Cultural Interpretations of Archaeological Plant Remains, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 215–227.
Ford, R. I., Werf, P. V., Goland, C., and Trigg, H. B. (1985). Paleoethnobotany of Anasazi sites. Appendix G. In Christenson, A. L., and Parry, W. J. (eds.),Excavations on Black Mesa, 1983: A Descriptive Report, Center for Archaeological Investigations, Research Paper No. 46, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, pp. 469–487, Tables G.3-18.
Foster, G. M. (1967).Tzintzuntzan: Mexican Peasants in a Changing World, Little, Brown, Boston.
Fritz, G. J. (1994). The value of archaeological plant remains for paleodietary reconstruction, In Sobolik, K. D. (ed.),Paleonutrition: The Diet and Health of Prehistoric Americans, Center for Archaeological Investigations, Occasional Paper No. 22, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, pp. 21–33.
Fry, G. F. (1985). Analysis of fecal material. In Gilbert, R. I., Jr., and Mielke J. H. (eds.),The Analysis of Prehistoric Diets, Academic Press, Orlando, pp. 127–154.
Gasser, R. E. (1982). Anasazi diet. In Gasser, R. E. (ed.),The Coronado Project Archaeological Investigations, the Specialists' Volume: Biocultural Analyses, Coronado Series 4, Museum of Northern Arizona Research Paper 23, Museum of Northern Arizona Press, Flagstaff, pp. 8–95.
Gebauer, A. B., and Price, T. D. (eds.) (1992).Transitions to Agriculture in Prehistory, Monographs in World Archaeology No. 4, Prehistory Press, Madison, WI.
Geib, P. R., and Davidson, D. (1994). Anasazi origins: A perspective from preliminary work at Old Man Cave.Kiva 60(2): 191–202.
Gilman, P. A. (1987). Architecture as artifact: Pit structures and pueblos in the American Southwest.American Antiquity 52: 538–564.
Glassow, M. A. (1972). Changes in the adaptations of Southwestern basketmakers: A systems perspective. In Leone, M. P. (ed.),Contemporary Archaeology: A Guide to Theory and Contributions, Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale, pp. 289–302.
Glassow, M. A. (1980).Prehistoric Agricultural in the Northern Southwest: A Study in Changing Patterns of Land Use, Anthropological Papers No. 16, Ballena Press, Socorro, NM.
Goldborer, S. E. (1988). Botanical remains from the Conejo site (FB46). In Settlement and Subsistence Patterns During Pithouse Occupations in the Chihuahua Desert. Manuscript on file, Archaeology Program, Environmental Management Office, Ft. Bliss, TX.
Goodman, A. H. (1991). Stress, adaptation, and enamel developmental defects. In Ortner, P. J., and Aufderheide, A. C. (eds.),Human Paleopathology: Current Synthesis and Future Options, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, pp. 280–287.
Goodman, A. H., and Rose, J. C. (1991). Dental enamel hypoplasias as indicators of nutritional status. InAdvances in Dental Anthropology, Wiley-Liss, New York, pp. 279–293.
Habicht-Mauche, J. A., Levendosky, A. A., and Schoeninger, M. J. (1994). Antelope Creek subsistence: The bone chemistry evidence. In Owsley, D. W., and Jantz, R. L. (eds.),Skeletal Biology in the Great Plains: Migration, Warfare, Health, and Subsistence, Smith-sonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, pp. 291–304.
Hallisy, S. J. (1974). Salvage excavations of sites 5MT UMR 2344 and 5MT UMR 2347 in Mancos Canyon, Southwest Colorado. Manuscript on file, Mesa Verde Research Center, Department of Anthropology. University of Colorado, Boulder.
Hansen, E. (1994).Early Archaic Diet at Old Man Cave: A Perspective on Archaic Subsistence in Southeastern Utah, Unpublished M.A. thesis, Department of Anthropology, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff.
Hard, R. J. (1983a).Excavations in the Castner Range Archeological District in El Paso, Texas, Publications in Anthropology No.11, El Paso Centennial Museum, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso.
Hard, R. J. (1983b). A model for prehistoric land use, Ft. Bliss, Texas. InProceedings 1983, American Society for Conservation Archaeology, New York, pp. 41–51.
Hard, R. J. (1983c). Fieldnotes: Tarahumara Ethnoarchaeological Project. Manuscript in possession of author.
Hard, R. J. (1986).Ecological Relationships Affecting the Rise of Farming Economies: A Test from the American Southwest, Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.
Hard, R. J. (1988). Settlement and subsistence patterns during pithouse occupations in the Chihuahuan Desert, Manuscript on file, Archaeology Program, Environmental Management Office, Ft. Bliss, TX.
Hard, R. J. (1990). Agricultural dependence among the mountain Mogollon. In Minnis, P., and Redman, C. (eds.),Perspectives on Southwestern Prehistory, Westview Press, Boulder, CO, pp. 135–149.
Hard, R. J. (1994). Agricultural intensification in the Sacramento Mountains of south central New Mexico. Paper presented at the 59th Annual Meeting of Society for American Archaeology, Anaheim, CA.
Hard, R. J. (1995). Formative Jornada Mogollon subsistence variability. Paper presented at the Jornada Mogollon Conference IX, El Paso, TX.
Hard, R. J., and Merrill, W. J. (1992). Mobile agriculturalists and the emergence of sedentism: Perspectives from northern Mexico.American Antropologist 94: 601–620.
Hard, R. J., and Yener, A. (1991). The function of anatolian ground and battered tools. Paper presented at the 56th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans.
Hard, R. J., Graeber, P., Manasco, J., Tennis, C., and Thuesen, K. (1994). Dona Ana phase ceramics and cultural evolution in the southern Jornada Mogollon.Bulletin of the Texas Archeological Society 62: 267–283.
Hard, R. J., Raymond, G. R., and Durst, J. (1996). Farmers or foragers? Upland exploitation on the eastern periphery of the Southwest. Paper presented at the 61st Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans.
Hare, P. E., Fogel, M. L., Stafford, T. W., Jr., Mitchell, A. D., and Hoering, T. C. (1991). The isotopic composition of carbon and nitrogen in individual amino acids isolated from modern and fossil proteins.Journal of Archaeological Science 18: 277–292.
Hastorf, C. A. (1988). The use of paleoethnobotanical data in prehistoric studies of crop production, processing, and consumption. In Hastorf, C. A., and Popper, V. S. (eds.),Current Paleoethnobotany: Analytical Methods and Cultural Interpretations of Archaeological Plant Remains, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 119–144.
Haury, E. W. (1950).The Stratigraphy and Archaeology of Ventana Cave, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Haury, E. W. (1962). The greater American Southwest. In Braidwood, R. J., and Willey, G. R. (eds.),Courses Toward Urban Life, Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology, No. 32, New York, pp. 106–131.
Hayden, B. (1987). Past to present uses of stone tools and their effects on assemblage characteristics in the Maya highlands. In Hayden, B. (ed.),Lithic Studies Among the Contemporary Highland Maya, University of Arizona, Tucson, pp. 160–234.
Hayden, B., and Cannon, A. (1984).The Structure of Material Systems: Ethnoarchaeology of the Maya Highlands, Society for American Archaeology Papers No. 3.
Hobson, K., and Schwarcz, H. P. (1986). The variation in δ13C values in bone collagen for two wild herbivore populations: Implications for paleodiet studies.Journal of Archaeological Science,13: 101–106.
Holloway, R. G. (1983). Appendix B, Charcoal and Pollen Analysis. In Hard, R. J.,Excavations in the Castner Range Archaeological District in El Paso, Texas, El Paso Centennial Museum Publications in Anthropology No.11, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, pp. 81–83.
Horsfall, G. (1987). A design theory perspective on variability in grinding stones. In Hayden, B. (ed.),Lithic Studies Among the Contemporary Highland Maya, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, pp. 332–377.
Hough, W. (1901).Archaeological Fieldwork in Northeastern Arizona, Report of the United States National Museum for the Year Ending 1901, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
Huckell, B. B. (1995).Of Marshes and Maize: Preceramic Agricultural Settlements in the Cienega Valley, Southeastern Arizona, Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona No. 59, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Huckell, L. W. (1996). Paleoethnobotany of late preceramic/early ceramic sites in Tucson, Arizona. Paper presented at the 61st Annual Meeting of Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans.
Hunn, E. S., and Williams, N. M. (1982). Introduction. In Williams, N. M., and Hunn, E. S. (eds.),Resource Managers: North American and Australian Hunter-Gatherers, Westview Press, Boulder, CO, pp. 1–16.
Jennings, J. D., Schroedl, A. R., and Holmer, R. N. (1980).Sudden Shelter, Anthropological Papers No. 103, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.
Johannessen, S. (1988). Plant remains and cultural change: Are paleoethnobotanical data better than we think? In Hastorf, C. A., and Popper, V. S. (eds.),Current Paleoethnobotany: Analytical Methods and Cultural Interpretations of Archaeological Plant Remains, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 145–166.
Jones, G. E. M. (1991). Numerical analysis in archaeobotany. In Van Zeist, W., Wasylikowa, K., and Behre, K. E. (eds.),Progress in Old World Palaeoethnobotany, Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 63–80.
Jones, M. K. (1991). Sampling in palaeoethnobotany. In Van Zeist, W., Wasylikowa, K., and Behre, K. E. (eds.),Progress in Old World Palaeoethnobotany, Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 53–62.
Kadane, J. B. (1988). Possible statistical contributions to paleoethnobotany. In Hastorf, C. A., and Popper, V. S. (eds.),Current Paleoethnobotany: Analytical Methods and Cultural Interpretations of Archaeological Plant Remains, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 206–214.
Katz, S. H., Hediger, M. L., and Valleroy, L. A. (1974). Traditional maize processing techniques in the New World.Science 184: 765–773.
Katzenberg, M. A. (1989). Stable isotope analysis of archaeological faunal remains from southern Ontario.Journal of Archaeological Science 16: 319–329.
Katzenberg, M. A., and Kelley, J. H. (1991). Stable isotope analysis of prehistoric bone from the Sierra Blanca region of New Mexico. In Beckett, P. H. (ed.),Mogollon V, COAS, Las Cruces, NM, pp. 207–219.
Katzenberg, M. A., Sanders, S. R., and Fitzgerald, W. R. (1993). Age differences in stable carbon and nitrogen ratios in a population of prehistoric maize horticulturists.American Journal of Physical Anthropology 90: 267–281.
Kelley, J. H. (1984).The Archaeology of the Sierra Blanca Region of Southeastern New Mexico, Anthropological Papers No. 74, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Kelley, J. H. (1991). An overview of the Capitan North Project. In Beckett, P. H. (ed.),Mogollon V, COAS, Las Cruces, NM, pp. 166–176.
Kelly, I. (1964).Southern Paiute Ethnography, University of Utah Anthropological Papers No. 69, Salt Lake City.
Kemp, P. R. (1983). Phenological patterns of Chihuahuan Desert plants in relation to the timing of water availability.Journal of Ecology 71: 427–436.
Kent, S., and Dunn, D. (1993). Etiology of hypoferremia in a recently sedentary Kalahari village.American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 48(4): 554–567.
Krieger, A. D. (1947).Cultural Complexes and Chronology in Northern Texas with Extension of Puebloan Dating to the Mississippi Valley, University of Texas Publication No. 4640, Austin.
Krueger, H. W., and Sullivan, C. (1984). Models for carbon isotope fractionation between diet and bone. In Turnlund, J. R., and Johnson, P. E. (eds.),Stable Isotopes in Nutrition, ACS Symposium Series 228, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, pp. 205–220.
Lancaster, J. (1983).An Analysis of Manos and Metates From the Mimbres Valley, New Mexico, Unpublished master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.
LeBlanc, S. A. (1982). The advent of pottery in the Southwest. In Southwestern ceramics: A comparative review,The Arizona Archaeologist 15: 27–51.
Lehmer, D. J. (1948).The Jornada Branch of the Mogollon, University of Arizona Bulletin 19, Social Science Bulletin 17, Tucson.
Lennstrom, H. A., and Hastorf, C. A. (1995). Interpretation in context: Sampling and analysis in paleoethnobotany.American Antiquity 60: 701–721.
Lightfoot, K. G. (1984).The Duncan Project: A Study of the Occupation Duration and Settlement Pattern of an Early Mogollon Pithouse Village, Anthropological Field Studies Number6, Office of Cultural Resource Management, Arizona State University, Tempe.
Lightfoot, K. G., and Feinman, G. M. (1982). Social differentiation and leadership development in early pithouse villages in the Mogollon region of the American Southwest.American Antiquity 47: 64–86.
Lindsay, A. L., Ambler, J. R., Stein, M. A., and Hobler, P. M. (1968).Survey and Excavations North and East of Navajo Mountain, Utah, 1959–1962, Museum of Northern Arizona Bulletin No. 45, Northern Arizona Society of Science and Art, Flagstaff.
Lintz, C. (1976). The McGrath site of the Panhandle aspect.Bulletin of the Oklahoma Anthropological Society 25: 1–110.
Lintz, C. (1984). The plains villagers: Antelope Creek. In Bell, R. E. (ed.),Prehistory of Oklahoma, Academic Press, New York, pp. 325–346.
Lintz, C. (1986).Architecture and Community Variability Within the Antelope Creek Phase of the Texas Panhandle, Oklahoma Archeological Survey, No. 14, Norman, OK.
Lintz, C. (1990). Landergin Mesa: The 1984 Phase II results. Manuscript on file, Office of the State Archeologist, Texas Historical Commission, Austin.
Lipe, W. D. (1970). Anasazi communities in the Red Rock Plateau, southeastern Utah. In Longacre, W. A. (ed.),Reconstructing Prehistoric Pueblo Societies, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, pp. 84–139.
Lipe, W. D. (1978). Archaeological work in the Grand Gulch region, southeastern Utah, 1969. InNational Geographic Society Research in 1969, National Geographic Society, Washington, DC, pp. 389–397.
Lister, R. H., and Breternitz, D. A. (1968). The salvage excavation of Site 1104, Wetherill Mesa. In Lister, R. H. (ed.),Contributions to Mesa Verde Archaeology: V. Emergency Archaeology in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, 1948–1966. University of Colorado Studies/Series in Anthropology No. 15, University of Colorado Press, Boulder, pp. 69–88.
Lister, R. H., and Lister, F. (1964).Contributions to Mesa Verde Archaeology: I. Site 499, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, Series in Anthropology No. 9, University of Colorado Press, Boulder.
Lister, R. H., and Smith, J. E. (1968). Salvage excavations at Site 1088, Morfield Canyon. In Lister, R. H. (ed.),Contributions to Mesa Verde Archaeology: V. Emergency Archaeology in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, 1948–1966; University of Colorado Studies/Series in Anthropology No. 15, University of Colorado Press, Boulder, pp. 5–32.
Logan, E. N., and Fratt, L. (1993). Pigment processing at Homol'ovi III: A preliminary study.Kiva 58: 415–428.
Lowrison, G. C. (1974).Crushing and Grinding: The Size Reduction of Solid Materials, Butterworths, London.
MacNeish, R. S. (1992).The Origins of Agriculture and Settled Life, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
MacNeish, R. S., and Marino, B. (1993). Section 4. Carbon 13/12 and nitrogen 15/14 isotope ratios on skeletons from the Jornada area. In MacNeish, R. S. (ed.),Preliminary Investigations of the Archaic in the Region of Las Cruces, New Mexico, Historic and Natural Resources Report No. 9, United States Army Air Defense Artillery Center, Fort Bliss, pp. 117–122, TX.
Marshall, J. J., and Whelan, W. J. (1979). Some aspects of dietary starch utilization in the mammalian digestive tract. In Yagi, K. (ed.),Biochemical Aspects of Nutrition, University Park, Baltimore, pp. 125–130.
Martin, D. L., Goodman, A. H., and Armelagos, G. J. (1985). Skeletal pathologies as indicators of quality and quantity of diet. In Gilbert, R. L., and Mielke, J. H. (eds.),The Analysis of Prehistoric Diets, Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 227–279.
Martin, D. L., Goodman, A. H., Armelagos, G. J., and Magennis, A. L. (1991).Black Mesa Anasazi Health: Reconstructing Life from Patterns of Death and Disease, Occasional Paper No. 14, Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.
Martin, P. S., and Plog, F. (1973).The Archaeology of Arizona: A Study of the Southwest Region, Doubleday/Natural History Press, Garden City, NY.
Martin, P. S., and Rinaldo, J. B. (1947).The SU Site, Excavations at a Mogollon Village, Western New Mexico: Third Season, 1946, Anthropological Series Vol. 32, No. 3, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.
Martin, P. S., and Sharrock, F. W. (1964). Pollen analysis of prehistoric human feces: A new approach to ethnobotany.American Antiquity 30: 168–180.
Marvin, U. B. (1973).Continental Drift: The Evolution of a Concept, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
Matson, R. G. (1991).The Origins of Southwestern Agriculture, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Matson, R. G., and Chisholm, B. (1991). Basketmaker II subsistence: Carbon isotopes and other dietary indicators from Cedar Mesa, Utah.American Antiquity 56: 444–459.
Matson, R. G., and Lipe, W. D. (1978). Settlement patterns on Cedar Mesa: Boom and bust on the northern periphery. In Euler, R., and Gumerman, G. (eds.),Investigations by the Southwestern Anthropological Research Group: An Exercise in Archaeological Cooperation, Museum of Northern Arizona Bulletin No. 50, Flagstaff, pp. 1–12.
Matson, R. G., Lipe, W. D., and Haase, W. R. (1988). Adaptational continuities and occupational discontinuities: The Cedar Mesa Anasazi.Journal of Field Archaeology 15: 245–264.
Mauldin, R. P. (1983).An Inquiry into the Past: Basketmaker II Settlement on Northeastern Black Mesa, Arizona, Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin.
Mauldin, R. P. (1991). Thumping and grinding: Ethnographic observations on ground stone in the Andes. Paper presented at the 56th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans.
Mauldin, R. P. (1993a). The relationship between ground stone and agricultural intensification in western New Mexico.Kiva 58: 317–330.
Mauldin, R. P. (1993b). Exploring the potential of variation in jackrabbit carbon isotopic signatures as an indicator of seasonality on archaeological sites in the Chihuahuan Desert. Manuscript on file, Archaeology Program, Environmental Management Office, Ft. Bliss, TX.
Mauldin, R. P. (1994). Small sites in western Texas and southern New Mexico.Bulletin of the Texas Archeological Society 65: 185–206.
Mauldin, R. P. (1995).Groping for the Past: Investigating Archaeological Patterns Across Space and Time in the Southern Southwestern United States. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.
Mauldin, R. P., and Tomka, S. A. (1988). Informe preliminar sobre experimentos en el uso de moledoras de piedra (Khona) en la communidad de Alota, Nor Lipez, Potosi, Bolivia. Manuscript submitted to the National Museum of Ethnography and Folklore, La Paz.
Mauldin, R. P., and Tomka, S. A. (1989). An ethnoarchaeological assessment of grinding efficiency and ground stone size. Paper presented at the 54th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Atlanta.
Mierau, G. W., and Schmidt, J. L. (1981). The mule deer of Mesa Verde National Park.Mesa Verde Research Series Paper No. 2, Mesa Verde National Park, CO.
Miksicek, C. H. (1987). Formation processes of the archaeobotanical record. In Schiffer, M. B. (ed.),Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, Vol.10, Academic Press, New York, pp. 211–247.
Miller, M. R., III (1989).Archaeological Excavations at the Gobernadora and Ojasen Sites: Dona Ana Phase Settlement in the Western Hueco Bolson, El Paso County, Texas, Center for Anthropological Research Report No. 673, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces.
Mills, B. (1989).Ceramics and Settlement in the Cedar Mesa Area, Southeastern Utah: A Methodological Approach, Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.
Minnis, P. E. (1985).Social Adaptations to Food Stress, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Minnis, P. E. (1989). Prehistoric diet in the northern Southwest: Macroplant remains from Four Corners feces.American Antiquity 54: 543–563.
Minnis, P. E., and Goldborer, S. E. (1991). Botanical remains from the Turquoise Ridge site. Manuscript on file, Department of Anthropology, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK.
Molleson, T. (1989). Seed preparation in the Mesolithic: The osteological evidence.Antiquity 63: 356–362.
Mooney, H., Troughton, J. H., and Berry, J. A. (1974).Arid Climates and Photosynthetic Systems, Carnegie Institution of Washington Year Book, 1973, pp. 793–805.
Morris, D. H. (1990). Changes in groundstone following the introduction of maize into the American Southwest.Journal of Anthropological Research 46: 177–194.
Murdock, G. P. (1967).Ethnographic Atlas, University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh.
Nagel, E. (1961).The Structure of Science: Problems in the Logic of Scientific Explanation, Harcourt, Brace and World, New York.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (1982).Monthly Normals of Temperature, Precipitation, and Heating and Cooling Degree Days 1951–80, Colorado, Climatography of the United States No. 81, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Asheville, NC.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (1982).Monthly Normals of Temperature, Precipitation, and Heating and Cooling Degree Days 1951–80, New Mexico, Climatography of the United States No. 81, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Asheville, NC.
Nelson, M. C., and Lippmeier, H. (1993). Grinding-tool design as conditioned by land-use pattern.American Antiquity 58: 286–305.
Neusius, S. W. (1985). Faunal resource use: Perspectives from the ethnographic record. InDolores Archaeological Program: Studies in Environmental Archaeology, University of Colorado Dolores Archaeological Program, United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Engineering and Research Center, Denver, pp. 101–115.
Nichols, D. L., and Smiley, F. E. (1985). An Overview of Northern Black Mesa Archaeology. In Christenson, A. L., and Parry, W. J. (eds.),Excavations on Black Mesa, 1983: A Descriptive Report, Research Paper No. 46, Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, pp. 49–81.
Nichols, D. L., and Smiley, F. E. (eds.) (1984).Excavations on Black Mesa, 1982: A Descriptive Report, Research Paper No. 39, Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.
O'Laughlin, T. C. (1980).The Keystone Dam Site and Other Archaic and Formative Sites in Northwest El Paso, Texas, Publications in Anthropology No 8, Centennial Museum, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso.
O'Laughlin, T. C. (1989). Botanical remains from Meyer Pithouse Village. Appendix 5 in Excavations at Meyer Pithouse Village, by Scarborough, V., Ms on file, Archaeology Program, Environmental Management Office, Ft. Bliss, TX.
O'Leary, M. H. (1981). Carbon isotope fractionation in plants.Phytochemistry 20(4): 553–567.
O'Leary, M. H. (1988). Carbon isotopes in photosynthesis: Fractionation techniques may reveal new aspects of carbon dynamics in plants.BioScience 38(5): 328–336.
Parry, W. J., Renken, L. A., and Nichols, D. L. (1985). Cultural resource summary of the 1983 Research area. In Christenson, A. L., and Parry, W. J. (eds.),Excavations on Black Mesa, 1983: A Descriptive Report, Research Paper No. 46, Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, pp. 1–46.
Parry, W. J., and Christenson, A. L. (1987).Prehistoric Stone Technology on Northern Black Mesa, Arizona, Occasional Paper No. 12, Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.
Pate, D. F. (1994). Bone chemistry and paleodiet.Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 1(2): 161–205.
Pearsall, D. M. (1987). Adaptation of prehistoric hunter-gatherers to the high Andes: The changing role of plant resources. In Harris, D. R., and Hillman, G. C. (eds.),Foraging and Farming: The Evolution of Plant Exploitation, One World Archaeology Series 13, Unwin Hyman, London, pp. 99–119.
Pearsall, D. M. (1988). Interpreting the meaning of macroremain abundance: The impact of source and context. In Hastorf, C. A., and Popper, V. S. (eds.),Current Paleoethnobotany: Analytical Methods and Cultural Interpretations of Archaeological Plant Remains, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 97–118.
Plog, F. (1979). Prehistory: Western Anasazi. In Ortiz, A. (ed.),Southwest, Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 9 (Sturtevant, W. C., gen. ed.), Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, pp. 108–130.
Plog, S. (ed.) (1986).Spatial Organization and Exchange: Archaeological Survey on Northern Black Mesa, Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale.
Plog, S., and Powell, S. (eds.) (1984).Papers on the Archaeology of Black Mesa, Arizona, Vol. II, Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale.
Popper, V. S. (1988). Selecting quantitative measurements in paleoethnobotony. In Hastorf, C. A., and Popper, V. S. (eds.),Current Paleoethnobotany: Analytical Methods and Cultural Interpretations of Archaeological Plant Remains, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 53–71.
Popper, V. S., and Hastorf, C. A. (1988). Introduction. In Hastorf, C. A., and Popper, V. S. (eds.),Current Paleoethnobotany: Analytical Methods and Cultural Interpretations of Archaeological Plant Remains, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 1–16.
Powell, S. (1983).Mobility and Adaptation: The Anasazi of Black Mesa, Arizona. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale.
Powell, S. (1987). Food storage and environmental uncertainty: An example from Black Mesa, Arizona. In Gaines, S. W. (ed.),Coasts, Plains and Deserts: Essays in Honor of Reynold J. Ruppe, Anthropological Research Papers No. 38, Arizona State University, Tempe, pp. 213–225.
Prasher, C. L. (1987).Crushing and Grinding Process Handbook, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Price, T. D., and Gebauer, A. B. (eds.) (1995).Last Hunters First Farmers: New Perspectives on the Prehistoric Transition to Agriculture, School of American Research Press, Santa Fe, NM.
Price, T. D., Schoeninger, M. J., and Armelagos, G. J. (1985). Bone chemistry and past behavior: An overview.Journal of Human Evolution 1985: 419–447.
Quade, J., Cerling, T. E., Andrews, P., and Alpagut, B. (1995). Paleodietary reconstruction of Miocene faunas from Pasalar, Turkey, using stable carbon and oxygen isotopes of fossil tooth enamel.Journal of Human Evolution 28: 373–384.
Redding, R. W. (1988). A general explanation of subsistence change: From hunting and gathering to food production.Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 7: 56–97.
Reinhard, K. J. and Bryant, V. M., Jr. (1992). Coprolite analysis: A biological perspective on archaeology. In Schiffer, M. B. (ed.),Archaeological Method and Theory, Vol 4, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, pp. 245–288.
Rice, G. E. (1975).A Systemic Explanation of Mogollon Settlement Pattern Changes, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle.
Rice, G. E. (1980). An analytical overview of the Mogollon tradition. In Stafford, C. R., and Rice, G. E. (eds.),Studies in the Prehistory of the Forestdale Region, Arizona, Anthropological Field Studies No. 1, Office of Cultural Resource Management, Arizona State University, Tempe, pp. 9–40.
Rindos, D. (1984).The Origins of Agriculture, Academic Press, New York.
Rocek, T. (1995). Sedentarization and agricultural dependence: perspectives from the pithouse-to-pueblo transition in the American Southwest.American Antiquity 60: 218–239.
Rohn, A. H. (1963). Prehistoric soil and water conservation on Chapin Mesa, Southwestern Colorado.American Antiquity 28: 441–445.
Rohn, A. H. (1971).Mug House, Archaeological Research Series No. 7-D, U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Washington, DC.
Rohn, A. H. (1977).Cultural Change and Continuity on Chapin Mesa, The Regents Press of Kansas, Lawrence.
Rylander, K. A. (1994). Corn preparation among the Basketmaker Anasazi: A scanning electron microscope study ofZea mays remains from coprolites. In Sobolik, K. D. (ed.),Paleonutrition: The Diet and Health of Prehistoric Americans, Center for Archaeological Investigations, Occasional Paper No. 22, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, pp. 115–133.
Salmon, M. A. (1982).Philosophy and Archaeology, Academic Press, New York.
Salmon, W. C. (1967).The Foundations of Scientific Inference, University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh.
Schiffer, M. B. (1972a). Archaeological context and systemic context.American Antiquity 37: 156–165.
Schiffer, M. B. (1972b). Cultural laws and the reconstruction of past lifeways.Kiva 37: 148–157.
Schiffer, M. B. (1976).Behavioral Archaeology, Academic Press, New York.
Schiffer, M. B. (1983). Toward the identification of formation processes.American Antiquity 48: 675–706.
Schiffer, M. B. (1987).Formation Processes of the Archaeological Record, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Schiffer, M. B. (1988). The structure of archaeological theory.American Antiquity 53(3): 461–485.
Schlanger, S. H. (1991). On manos, metates, and the history of site occupations.American Antiquity 56: 460–474.
Schoeninger, M. J., and Moore, K. (1992). Bone stable isotope studies in archaeology.Journal of World Prehistory 6(2): 247–296.
Schwarcz, H. P., and Schoeninger, M. J. (1991). Stable isotope analysis in human nutritional ecology.Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 34: 283–321.
Schwarcz, H. P., Melbye, F. J., Katzenberg, M. A., and Knyf, M. (1985). Stable isotopes in human skeletons of southern Ontario: Reconstructing paleodiet.Journal of Archaeological Science 12: 187–206.
Sebastian, L., and Larralde, S. (1989).Living on the Land: 11,000 Years of Human Adaptation in Southeastern New Mexico, Cultural Resources Series No. 6., Bureau of Land Management, Roswell District.
Shennan, S. (1988).Quantifying Archaeology, Academic Press, San Diego.
Simms, S. R. (1983). The effects of grinding stone reuse on the archaeological record in the eastern Great Basin.Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 5: 98–102.
Smith, B. D. (1992).Rivers of Change: Essays on Early Agriculture in Eastern North America, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
Smith, B. D. (1995).The Emergence of Agriculture, Scientific American Library, New York.
Smith, B. N. (1971). Carbon isotope ratios of respired CO2 from castor bean, corn, peanut, pea, radish, squash, sunflower, and wheat seedlings.Plant and Cell Physiology 12: 451–455.
Smith, B. N. (1972). Natural Abundance of the stable isotopes of carbon in biological systems.Bioscience 22: 226–231.
Smith, B. N., and Brown, W. V. (1973). The Kranz syndrome in the Gramineae as indicated by carbon isotopic ratios.American Journal of Botany 60: 505–513.
Smith, J. E. (1987).Mesas, Cliffs, and Canyons: The University of Colorado Survey of Mesa Verde National Park 1971–1977, Mesa Verde Research Series No. 3, Mesa Verde Museum Association, Mesa Verde National Park, CO.
Smith, M. F., Jr. (ed.) (1994).Function and Technology of Anasazi Ceramics from Black Mesa, Arizona, Occasional Paper No. 15, Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.
Snow, D. H. (1990). Tener comal y metate: Protohistoric Rio Grande maize use and diet. InPerspectives on Southwestern Prehistory, Westview Press, Boulder, CO.
Sobolik, K. D. (1988). Diet change in the lower Pecos: Analysis of Baker Cave coprolites.Bulletin of the Texas Archeological Society 59: 111–127.
Sobolik, K. D. (1994). Introduction. In Sobolik, K. D. (ed.),Paleonutrition: The Diet and Health of Prehistoric Americans, Center for Archaeological Investigations, Occasional Paper No. 22, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, pp. 1–18.
Speth, J. D., and Spielmann, K. A. (1983). Energy source, protein metabolism, and huntergather subsistence strategies.Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 2: 1–31.
Spielmann, K. A., Schoeninger, M. J., and Moore, K. (1990). Plains-Pueblo interdependence and human diet at Pecos Pueblo, New Mexico.American Antiquity 55: 745–765.
Stafford, C. R. (1980). A consideration of settlement-subsistence systems in the Forestdale region. In Stafford, C. R., and Rice, G. E. (eds.),Studies in the Prehistory of the Forestdale Region, Arizona, Anthropological Field Studies No. 1, Office of Cultural Resource Management, Arizona State University, Tempe, pp. 41–75.
Stark, B. L. (1986). Origins of food production in the New World. In Meltzer, D. J., Fowler, D. D., and Sabloff, J. A. (eds.),American Archaeology Past and Future: A Celebration of the Society for American Archaeology 1935–1985, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, pp. 277–321.
Stenhouse, M. J., and Baxter, M. S. (1979). The uptake of bomb14C in humans. In Berger, R., and Suess, H. E. (eds.),Radiocarbon Dating, University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 324–341.
Stiger, M. (1977).Anasazi Diet: The Coprolite Evidence, Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Colorado, Boulder.
Stiger, M. (1979). Mesa Verde subsistence patterns: From Basketmaker to Pueblo III.Kiva 44: 133–144.
Stone, T. (1994). The impact of raw-material scarcity on ground-stone manufacture and use: An example from the Phoenix Basin Hohokam.American Antiquity 59: 680–694.
Stowe, L. G., and Teeri, J. A. (1978). The geographic distribution of C4 species of the Dicotyledonae in relation to climate.The American Naturalist 112: 609–623.
Struever, S. (1968). Flotation techniques for the recovery of small scale archaeological remains.American Antiquity 33: 353–362.
Stuart-Macadam, P. (1991). Porotic hyperstosis: Changing interpretations. In Ortner, D. J., and Aufderheide, A. C. (eds.),Human Paleopathology: Current Synthesis and Future Options, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, pp. 36–39.
Swannack, J. D., Jr. (1969).Big Juniper House, Archaeological Research Series No. 7-C, U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Washington, DC.
Szarek, S. R., and Ting, I. P. (1977). The occurrence of crassulacean acid metabolism among plants.Photosynthetica 11: 330–342.
Szarek, S. R., and Troughton, J. H. (1976). Carbon isotope ratios in crassulacean acid metabolism plants: Seasonal patterns from plants in natural stands.Plant Physiology 58: 367–370.
Szuter, C. R. (1991).Hunting by Prehistoric Horticulturalists in the American Southwest, The Evolution of North American Indians (Thomas, D. H., Ser. ed.), Garland, New York.
Teeri, J. A. (1988). Interaction of temperature and other environmental variables influencing plant distribution. In Long, S. P., and Woodward, F. I. (eds.),Plants and Temperature, Symposia for the Society for Experimental Biology No 42, Company of Biologists, Cambridge, England, pp. 77–89.
Teeri, J. A., and Stowe, L. G. (1976). Climatic patterns and the distribution of C4 grasses in North America.Oecologia 23: 1–12.
Thomas, D. H. (1986).Refiguring Anthropology: First Principles of Probability & Statistics, Waveland Press, Prospect Heights, IL.
Tieszen, L. L. (1994). Stable isotopes on the plains: Vegetation and diet determinations. In Owsley, D. W., and Jantz, R. L. (eds.),Skeletal Biology in the Great Plains: Migration, Warfare, Health, and Subsistence, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, pp. 261–282.
Tieszen, L. L., and Fagre, T. (1993a). Effect of diet quality and composition on the isotopic composition of respiratory CO2, bone collagen, bioapatite, and soft tissues. In Lambert, J. B., and Grupe, G. (eds.),Prehistoric Human Bone-Archaeology at the Molecular Level, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 121–155.
Tieszen, L. L., and Fagre, T. (1993b). Carbon isotopic variability in modern and archaeological maize.Journal of Archaeological Science 20: 25–40.
Toll, M. S. (1988). Flotation sampling: Problems and some solutions, with examples from the American Southwest. In Hastorf, C. A., and Popper, V. S. (eds.),Current Paleoethnobotany: Analytical Methods and Cultural Interpretations of Archaeological Plant Remains, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 36–52.
Tschauner, H. (1996). Middle range theory, behavioral archaeology, and postempiricist philosophy of science in archaeology.Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory,3: 1–30.
Upham, S., MacNeish, R. S., Galinat, W. C., and Stevenson, C. M. (1987). Evidence concerning the origins of maize de ocho.American Anthropologist 89: 410–419.
van der Merwe, N. J. (1982). Carbon isotopes, photosynthesis, and archaeology.American Scientist 70: 596–606.
Van Ness, M. A. (1986).Desha Complex Macrobotanical Fecal Remains: An Archaic Diet in the American Southwest, Master's thesis, Department of Anthroplogy, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff.
Vermillion, J. H. (1939). The structure of the El Paso polychrome culture. Manuscript on file, El Paso Archaeological Society, El Paso, TX.
Vogel, J. C. (1978). Isotopic assessment of the dietary habits of ungulates.South African Journal of Science 74: 298–301.
Vogel, J. C., and van der Merwe, N. J. (1977). Isotopic evidence for early maize cultivation in New York State.American Antiquity 42: 238–242.
Wagner, G. E. (1988). Comparability among recovery techniques. In Hastorf, C. A., and Popper, V. S. (eds.),Current Paleoethnobotany: Analytical Methods and Cultural Interpretations of Archaeological Plant Remains, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 17–35.
Wagner, G., Smart, T., Ford, R. I., and Trigg, H. (1984). Ethnobotanical recovery, 1982: Summary of analysis and frequency tables. In Nichols, D. L., and Smiley, F. E. (eds.),Excavations on Black Mesa, 1982: A Descriptive Report, Center for Archaeological Investigations, Research Paper No 39, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, pp. 613–632.
Walker, P. L. (1985). Anemia among prehistoric Indians of the American Southwest. In Merbs, C. F., and Miller, R. J. (eds.),Health and Disease in the Prehistoric Southwest, Anthropological Research Paper No. 34, Arizona State University, Tempe, pp. 139–161.
Watson, P. J. (ed.) (1974). Theoretical and methodological difficulties encountered in dealing with paleofecal material. InArcheology of the Mammoth Cave Area, Academic Press, New York, pp. 239–241.
Welkie, G. W., and Caldwell, M. (1970). Leaf anatomy of species in some dicotyledon families as related to the C3 and C4 pathways of carbon fixation.Canadian Journal of Botany 48: 2135–2146.
Wetterstrom, W. E. (1978). Plant remains from Mesilla and El Paso phase sites of the Hueco Bolson: A preliminary report on plant foods. InSettlement Patterns of the Western Hueco Bolson (Whalen, M. E.), Publications in Anthropology No. 6, Centennial Museum, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, pp. 230–242.
Whalen, M. E. (1977).Settlement Patterns of the Eastern Hueco Bolson, Publications in Anthroplogy No. 4, El Paso Centennial Museum, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso.
Whalen, M. E. (1978).Settlement Patterns of the Western Hueco Bolson, Publications in Anthropology No. 6, El Paso Centennial Museum, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso.
Whalen, M. E. (1981). Cultural-ecological aspects of the pithouse-to-pueblo transition in a portion of the Southwest.American Antiquity 46: 75–92.
Whalen, M. E. (1994a).Turquoise Ridge and Late Prehistoric Residential Mobility in the Desert Mogollon Region, Anthropological Papers No. 118, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.
Whalen, M. E. (1994b). Moving out of the Archaic on the edge of the Southwest.American Antiquity 59: 622–638.
Whallon, R. (1975). Variables and dimensions: The critical step in quantitative typology. In Whallon, R., and Brown, J. A. (eds.),Essays on Archaeological Typology, Center for American Archaeology Press, Evanston, IL, pp. 127–161.
Wills, W. H. (1988).Early Prehistoric Agriculture in the American Southwest, School of American Research, Sante Fe, NM.
Wills, W. H. (1992). Plant cultivation and the evolution of risk-prone economies in the prehistoric American Southwest. In Gebauer, A. B., and Price, T. D. (eds.),Transitions to Agriculture in Prehistory, Monographs in World Archaeology No. 4, Prehistory Press, Madison, WI, pp. 153–176.
Woodbury, R. B., and Zubrow, E. B. W. (1979). Agricultural beginnings, 2000 B.C.-A.D. 500. In Ortiz, A. (ed.),Southwest, Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 9 (Sturtevant, W. C., gen. ed.), Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, pp. 43–60.
Wright, M. K. (1990).Sandstone and Cornmeal: Experimental Use of Early Pueblo Maize Grinding Tools from Southwestern Colorado, Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman.
Yarnell, R. A. (1974). Plant food and cultivation of the Salts Cavers. In Watson, P. J. (ed.),Archaeology of the Mammoth Cave Area, Academic Press, New York, pp. 113–122.
Yohe, R. M., II, Newman, M. E., and Schneider, J. S. (1991). Immunological identification of small-mammal proteins on aboriginal milling equipment.American Antiquity 56: 659–666.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hard, R.J., Mauldin, R.P. & Raymond, G.R. Mano size, stable carbon isotope ratios, and macrobotanical remains as multiple lines of evidence of maize dependence in the American southwest. J Archaeol Method Theory 3, 253–318 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02229401
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02229401