Skip to main content
Log in

Burn shock resuscitation

  • World Progress In Surgery
  • Published:
World Journal of Surgery Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The goal of fluid resuscitation in the burn patient is maintenance of vital organ function at the least immediate or delayed physiological cost. To optimize fluid resuscitation in severely burned patients, the amount of fluid should be just enough to maintain vital organ function without producing iatrogenic pathological changes. The composition of the resuscitation fluid in the first 24 hours postburn probably makes very little difference; however, it should be individualized to the particular patient. The utilization of the advantages of hypertonic, crystalloid, and colloid solutions at various times postburn will minimize the amount of edema formation. The rate of administration of resuscitation fluids should be that necessary to maintain satisfactory organ function, with maintenance of hourly urine outputs of 30 cc to 50 cc in adults and 1–2 cc/kg/% burn in children. When a child reaches 30 kg to 50 kg in weight, the urine output should be maintained at the adult level. With our current knowledge of the massive fluid shifts and vascular changes that occur, mortality related to burn-induced hypovolemia has decreased considerably. The failure rate for adequate initial volume restoration is less than 5% even for patients with burns of more than 85% of the total body surface area. These improved statistics, however, are derived from experience in burn centers, where there is substantial knowledge of the pathophysiology of burn injury. Inadequate volume replacement in major burns is, unfortunately, common when clinicians lack sufficient knowledge in this area.

Résumé

Le but du remplissage liquidien chez le brûlé est de maintenir les fonctions des organes vitaux et de minimiser les conséquences nocives immédiates et secondaires. Pour optimiser les effets du remplissage, la quantité de liquide doit être calculée pour maintenir les fonctions vitales sans créer de modifications pathologiques iatrogènes. La composition du liquide de remplissage dans les 24 premières heures qui suivent la brûlure n'a probablement que peu d'importance. Cette quantité devrait être calculée et adaptée pour chaque patient. L'utilisation judicieuse des solutions hypertoniques macromoléculaires, cristalloïde et colloïde, permet, du fait de leurs avantages respectifs, de minimiser l'oedème postbrûlure. La quantité de liquide nécessaire est celle qui maintient un débit urinaire de 30 à 50 cc chez l'adulte et 1 à 2 cc/kg/% surface brûlée chez l'enfant. Lorsque l'enfant atteint un poids de 30–50 kgs, le débit urinaire à maintenir est celui d'un adulte. Grâce à nos connaissances actuelles sur les modifications massives de l'équilibre hydroélectrolytique et les conséquences vasculaires qui en dépendent, la mortalité liée à l'hypovolémie post-brûlure a diminué très nettement. Le taux d'échec de la ressuscitation initiale est inférieure à 5%, même pour les brûlures touchant plus de 85% de la surface corporelle. Cette amélioration est le fruit de la recherche des centres spécialisés qui ont pu approfondir les connaissances physiopathologiques des brûlures. Une compensation hydro-électrolytique insuffisante est malheureusement fréquente lorsque le médecin traitant n'est pas familiarisé avec cette pathologie.

Resumen

El objetivo de la resucitación con líquidos es el mantenimiento de la función orgánica vital al menor costo fisiológico, inmediato y tardío. Para optimizar la resucitación con líquidos en pacientes con quemaduras graves, la cantidad de líquido administrado debe ser apenas la suficiente para mantener la función orgánica vital sin producir alteraciones patológicas yatrogénicas. La composición del líquido de resucitación en las primeras 24 horas después de la quemadura posiblemente hace poca diferencia; sin embargo, debe ser individualizada para cada paciente en particular. La utilización de las características ventajosas de las soluciones hipertónicas, cristaloides y coloides, en las etapas siguientes a la quemadura logra minimizar la magnitud del edema. La rata de administración de los líquidos de resucitación debe ser la necesaria para mantener una función orgánica satisfactoria, y una excreción urinaria de 30–50 cc en los adultos y de 1–22 cc kg/% quemadura en niños. Cuando el niño alcanza 30–50 kg de peso, la excreción urinaria debe ser mantenida al nivel del adulto. Con nuestro conocimiento actual sobre los cambios masivos de líquidos y las alteraciones vasculares que ocurren, se ha reducido considerablemente la mortalidad relacionada con la hipovolemia inducida por la quemadura. La tasa de fracaso de la restauración inicial adecuada es de menos de 5%, aún en pacientes con quemaduras de más de 85% de la superficie corporal total. Estas mejores cifras, sin embargo, se derivan de la experiencia de centros especializados en quemaduras, donde existe considerable conocimiento sobre la patofisiología de la lesión por quemadura. Desafortunadamente el inadecuado reemplazo de volumen en los pacientes con quemaduras mayores es común cuando los médicos carecen de conocimientos suficientes en esta área.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Artz, C.P., Moncrief, J.A.: The burn problem. In The Treatment of Burns, C.P. Artz, J.A. Moncrief, editors, Philadelphia, W.B. Saunders Company, 1969, pp. 1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Underhill, F.P.: The significance of anhydremia in extensive surface burn. J.A.M.A.95:852, 1930

    Google Scholar 

  3. Moore, F.D.: The body-weight burn budget: Basic fluid therapy for the early burn. Surg. Clin. North Am.50:1249, 1970

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Pruitt, B.A. Jr., Mason, A.D. Jr., Moncrief, J.A.: Hemodynamic changes in the early postburn patients: The influence of fluid administration and of a vasodilator (hydralazine). J. Trauma11:36, 1971

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Majno, G., Palide, G.E.: Studies on inflammation. I. The effect of histamine and serotonin on vascular permeability. J. Cell Biol.11:571, 1961

    Google Scholar 

  6. Majno, G., Shea, S.M., Leventhal, M.: Endothelial contractions induced by histamine type mediators. J. Cell Biol.42:647, 1969

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Anggard, E., Jonsson, C.E.: Eflux of prostaglandins in lymph from scalded tissue. Acta Physiol. Scand.81:440, 1971

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Sevitt, S.: Local blood flow in experimental burns. J. Pathol. Bact.61:427, 1949

    Google Scholar 

  9. Leape, L.: Initial changes in burns: Tissue changes in burned and unburned skins of Rhesus monkeys. J. Trauma10:488, 1970

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Carvajal, H.F., Brouhard, B.H., Linares, H.A.: Effect of antihistamine, antiserotonin and ganglionic blocking agents upon increased capillary permeability following burn edema. J. Trauma15:969, 1975

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Boykin, J.V. Jr., Crute, S.L., Haynes, B.W. Jr.: Cimetidine therapy for burn shock: A quantitative assessment. J. Trauma25:864, 1985

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. VanNeuten, J.M., Janssen, P.A.J., VanBeck, J.: Vascular effects of ketanserin (R 41 468), a novel antagonist of 5-HT2 serotonergic receptors. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.218:217, 1981

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Holliman, C.J., Meuleman, T.R., Larsen, K.R., Port, J.D., Stanley, T.H., Pace, A.L., Warden, G.D.: The effect of ketanserin, a specific serotonin antagonist, on burn shock hemodynamic parameters in a porcine burn model. J. Trauma23:367, 1983

    Google Scholar 

  14. Heggers, J.P., Loy, G.L., Robson, M.C., DelBaccaro, E.J.: Histological demonstration of prostaglandins and thromboxanes in burned tissue. J. Surg. Res.28:110, 1980

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Herndon, D.N., Abston, S., Stein, M.D.: Increased thromboxane B2 levels in the plasma of burned and septic burned patients. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet.159:210, 1984

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Arturson, G.: Microvascular permeability to macromolecules in thermal injury. Acta Physiol. Scand. Suppl.463:111, 1979

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Roeha, E., Silva, M., Antonio, A.: Release of bradykinin and the mechanisms of production of thermic edema (45°C) in the rat's paw. Med. Exp.3:371, 1960

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Holder, I.A., Neely, A.N.: Hageman factor dependent kininogenkinin system activation: A unified hypothesis of post-burn immunosuppression. J. Burn Care Rehabil. (in press)

  19. Neely, A.N., Nathan, P., Highsmith, R.F.: Plasma proteolytic activity following burns. J. Trauma28:362, 1988

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Baxter, C.R.: Fluid volume and electrolyte changes in the early post-burn period. Clin. Plast. Surg.1:693, 1974

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Moyer, C.A., Margraf, H.W., Monafo, W.W.: Burn shock and extravascular sodium deficiency: Treatment with Ringer's solution with lactate. Arch. Surg.90:799, 1965

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Baxter, C.R., Shires, G.T.: Physiological response to crystalloid resuscitation of severe burns. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci.150:874, 1968

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Moylan, J.A., Mason, A.B., Rogers, P.W., Walker, H.L.: Post-burn shock: A critical evaluation of resuscitation. J. Trauma13:354, 1973

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Demling, R.H., Mazess, R.B., Witt, R.M., Wolberg, W.H.: The study of burn wound edema using dichosmatic absorptionmetry. J. Trauma18:124, 1978

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Hilton, J.G.: Effects of fluid resuscitation on total fluid loss following thermal injury. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet.152:44, 1981

    Google Scholar 

  26. Schwartz, S.L.: Consensus summary on fluid resuscitation. J. Trauma 19(11 Suppl):876, 1979

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Shires, G.T.: Proceedings of the Second NIH Workshop on Burn Management. J. Trauma 19 (11 Suppl):862, 1979

    Google Scholar 

  28. Monafo, W.W.: The treatment of burn shock by the intravenous and oral administration of hypertonic lactated saline solution. J. Trauma10:575, 1970

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Monafo, W.W., Halverson, J.D., Schechtman, K.: The role of concentrated sodium solutions in the resuscitation of patients with severe burns. Surgery95:129, 1984

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Demling, R.H., Gunther, R.A., Haines, B., Kramer, G.: Burn edema Part II: Complications, prevention, and treatment. J. Burn Care Rehabil.3:199, 1982

    Google Scholar 

  31. Gunn, M.L., Hansbrough, J.F., Davis, J.W., Furst, S.R., Field, T.O.: Prospective randomized trial of hypertonic sodium lactate vs. lactated Ringer's solution for burn shock resuscitation. J. Trauma29:1261, 1989

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Du, G., Slater, H. Goldfarb, I.W.: Influences of different resuscitation regimens on acute early weight gain in extensively burned patients. Burns17:147, 1991

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Baxter, C.R.: Problems and complications of burn shock resuscitation. Surg. Clin. North Am.58:1313, 1978

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Goodwin, C.W., Dorethy, J., Lam, V., Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: Randomized trial of efficacy of crystalloid and colloid resuscitation on hemodynamic response and lung water following thermal injury. Ann. Surg.197:520, 1983

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Demling, R.H.: Fluid resuscitation. In The Art and Science of Burn Care, J.A. Boswick, Jr., editor, Rockville, Maryland, Aspen Publishers, Inc., 1987, pp. 189–202

    Google Scholar 

  36. Demling, R.H., Kramer, G.C., Harms, B.: Role of thermal injury-induced hypoproteinemia on edema formation in burned and nonburned tissue. Surgery95:136, 1984

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Demling, R.H., Kramer, G.C., Gunther, R., Nerlich, M.: Effect of non-protein colloid on post-burn edema formation in soft tissues and lung. Surgery95:593, 1985

    Google Scholar 

  38. Gelin, L.E., Solvell, L., Zederfeldt, B.: The plasma volume expanding effect of low viscous dextran and Macrodex. Acta Chir. Scand.122:309, 1981

    Google Scholar 

  39. Merrell, S.W., Saffle, J.R., Sullivan, J.J., Navar, P.D., Kravitz, M., Warden, G.D.: Fluid resuscitation in thermally injured children. Amer. J. Surg. 152:664, 1986

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Graves, T.A., Cioffi, W.G., McManus, W.F., Mason, A.D. Jr., Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: Fluid resuscitation of infants and children with massive thermal injury. J. Trauma28:1656, 1988

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Navar, P.D., Saffle, J.R., Warden, G.D.: Effect of inhalation injury on fluid resuscitation requirements after thermal injury. Amer. J. Surg.150:716, 1985

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Pruitt, B., Jr.: Fluid and electrolyte replacement in the burned patient. World J. Surg.2:139, 1978

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Warden, G., Stratta, R., Saffle, J.R. Jr., Kravitz, M., Ninnemann, J.L.: Plasma exchange therapy in patients failing to resuscitate from burn shock. J. Trauma23:945, 1983

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Schnarrs, R., Cline, C., Goldfarb, I., Hanrahan, J., Jacob, H., Slater, H., Gaisford, J.: Plasma exchange for failure of early resuscitation in thermal injuries. J. Burn Care Rehabil.7:230, 1986

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Pruitt, B.A. Jr.: Fluid resuscitation for extensively burned patients. J. Trauma21(Suppl):690, 1981

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Warden, G.D. Burn shock resuscitation. World J. Surg. 16, 16–23 (1992). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02067109

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02067109

Keywords

Navigation