Abstract
Tiered testing for the effects of chemicals on aquatic ecosystems has begun to include tests at the ecosystem level as a component in pesticide regristration. Because such tests are expensive, regulators and industry need to know what additional information they can gain from such tests relative to the costs of the simpler single-species toxicity bioassays. Requirements for ecosystem-level testing have developed because resource managers have not fully understood the implications of potential damage to resources without having evaluations of the predicted impacts under field conditions. We review approaches taken in the use of experimental ecosystems, discuss benefits and limitations of small- and large-scale ecosystem tests, and point to correlative approaches between laboratory and field toxicity testing.
Laboratory experimental ecosystems (microcosms) have been successfully used to measure contaminant bioavailability, to determine routes of uptake in moderately complex aquatic systems, and to isolate factors modifying contaminant uptake into the biota. Such factors cannot be as readily studied in outdoor experimental ecosystems because direct cause-and-effect relations are often confounded and difficult to isolate. However, laboratory tests can be designed to quantify the relations among three variables: known concentrations of Stressors; specific sublethal behavioral, biochemical, and physiological effects displayed by organisms; and responses that have been observed in ecosystem-level analyses. For regulatory purposes, the specificity of test results determines how widely they can be applied. Ecotoxicological research should be directed at attempts to identify instances where single-species testing would be the appropriate level of analysis for identifying critical ecological endpoints and for clarifying relationships between ecosystem structure and function, and where it would be inadequate for a given level of analysis.
Similar content being viewed by others
Literature cited
Boyle, T. P., S. E. Finger, J. D. Petty, L. M. Smith, and J. N. Huckins. 1984. Distribution and rate of disappearance of fluorene in pond ecosystems.Chemosphere 13:997–1008.
Boyle, T. P., S. E. Finger, R. L. Paulson, and C. F. Rabeni. 1985. Comparison of laboratory and field assessment of fluorene. Part II: effects on the ecological structure and function of experimental pond ecosystems. Pages 134–151in T. P. Boyle (ed.), Validation and predictability of laboratory methods for assessing the fate and effects of contaminants in aquatic ecosystems. ASTM STP 865, American Society Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Brezonik, P. L., L. A. Baker, J. Eaton, T. Frost, P. Garrison, J. Magnuson, J. A. Perry, W. Rose, B. Shepard, W. Swenson, C. Watras, and K. Webster. 1986. Experimental acidification of Little Rock Lake.Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 31:115–122.
Brezonik, P. L., J. Eaton, T. M. Frost, P. Garrison, T. K. Kratz, J. Magnuson, H. McCormack, J. A. Perry, W.J. Rose, B. K. Shepherd, W. A. Swenson, C. J. Watras, and K. E. Webster. 1986. Experimental acidification of Little Rock Lake, Wisconsin: baseline studies and predictions of lake responses to acidification. Special Research Report No. 7. Water Resources Center, University of Minnesota. 43 pp.
Cairns, J., Jr. 1983. The case for simultaneous toxicity testing at different levels of biological organization. Pages 111–127in W. E. Bishop, R. D. Cardwell, and B. B. Heidolph (eds.), Aquatic toxicology and hazard assessment: sixth symposium. ASTM STP 802. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Cairns, J., Jr. 1986. What is meant by validation of predictions based on laboratory toxicity tests?Hydrobiologia 137:271–278.
Coats, J. R. 1980. A stream microcosm for environmental assessment of pesticides. Pages 715–723in J. P. Geisy, Jr. (ed.), Microcosms in ecological research. Department of Energy Symposium Series, 52 (conf. 781101), Washington, DC.
Cooper, W. E., and R. J. Stout. 1985. The Monticello experiment: a case study. Pages 96–116in J. Cairns, Jr. (ed.), Multispecies toxicity testing. Pergamon Press, Elmsford, New York.
Cronan, C. S., and C. L. Schofield. 1979. Aluminum leaching response to acid precipitation: effects on high-elevation watersheds in the Northeast.Science 204:304.
Crossey, M. J., and T. W. La Point. 1988. A comparison of periphyton community structural and functional responses to heavy metals.Hydrobiologia 162:109–121.
DeNoyelles, F., Jr., and W. D. Kettle. 1985. Experimental ponds for evaluating bioassay predictions. Pages 91–103in T. P. Boyle (ed.), Validation and predictability of laboratory methods for assessing the fate and effects of contaminants in aquatic ecosystems. ASTM STP 865. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Geckler, J. R., W. B. Horning, T. M. Neiheisel, Q. H. Pickering, E. L. Robinson, and C. E. Stephen. 1976. Validity of laboratory tests for predicting copper toxicity in streams. US Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth, Minnesota. EPA-600/3-76-116.
Giddings, J. M. 1982. Effects of the water-soluble fraction of a coal derived oil on pond microcosms.Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 11:735–747.
Giesy, J. P., Jr., and P. M. Allred. 1985. Replicability of aquatic multispecies test systems. Pages 187–247in J. Cairns, Jr. (ed.), Multispecies toxicity testing. Pergamon Press, Elmsford, New York.
Giesy, J. P., Jr., H. J. Kania, J. W. Bowling, R. L. Knight, S. Mashburn, and S. Clarkin. 1979. Fate and biological effects of cadmium introduced into channel microcosms. US Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia. EPA-6002/ 3-79-039.
Huckins, J. N., J. D. Petty, and M. A. Heitkamp. 1984. Modular containers for microcosm and process model studies on the fate and effects of aquatic contaminants.Chemosphere 13:1329–1341.
Karickhoff, S. W., and K. R. Morris. 1985. Sorption dynamics of hydrophobic pollutants in sediment suspensions.Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 4:469–479.
Karickhoff, S. W., D. S. Brown, and T. A. Scott. 1979. Sorption of hydrophobic pollutants on natural sediments.Water Research 13:241–248.
Kenaga, E. E., and C. A. I. Goring. 1980. Relationships between water solubility, soil sorption, octanol/water partitioning and concentration of chemicals in biota. Pages 78–115in J. G. Eaton, P. R. Parrish, and A. C. Hendricks (eds.), Aquatic toxicology: third conference. ASTM STP 707, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Kimball, K. D., and S. A. Levin. 1985. Limitations of laboratory bioassays: the need for ecosystem level testing.BioScience 35:165–171.
Kimerle, R. A., W. E. Gledhill, and J. V. Levinskas. 1978. Environmental safety assessment of new materials. Pages 132–146in J. Cairns, Jr., K. L. Dickson, and A. W. Maki (eds.), Estimating the hazard of chemical substances to aquatic life. ASTM STP 657, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
La Point, T. W., S. M. Melancon, and M. K. Morris. 1984. Relationships among observed metal concentrations, criteria and benthic community structural responses in 15 streams.Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation 56:1036–1038.
La Point, T. W., J. F. Fairchild, E. E. Little, and S. E. Finger. 1989. Laboratory and field techniques in ecotoxicological research: strengths and limitations. Pages 239–255in A. Boudou and F. Ribeyre (eds.), Aquatic ecotoxicology: fundamental concepts and methodologies. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
Larsen, D. P., F. DeNoyelles, Jr., F. Stay, and T. Shiroyama. 1986. Comparisons of single-species, microcosm and experimental pond responses to atrazine exposure.Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 5:179–190.
Leffler, J. W. 1981. Aquatic microcosms and stress criteria for assessing environmental impact of organic chemicals. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Final report, contract 68-01-5043.
Loewengart, G., and A. W. Maki. 1985. Multispecies tests in the safety assessment of chemicals: necessity or curiosity? Pages 1–12in J. Cairns, Jr. (ed.), Multispecies toxicity testing. Pergamon Press, Elmsford, New York.
Macek, K. W., F. L. Birge, A. L. Mayer, J. R. Buikema, and A. W. Maki. 1978. Toxicological effects. Pages 27–32in J. Cairns, Jr., K. L. Dickson, and A. W. Maki (eds.), Estimating the hazard of chemical substances to aquatic life. ASTM STP 657, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
McKinley, V. L., and J. R. Vestal. 1982. Effects of acid on plant litter decomposition in an Arctic lake.Applied and Environmental Microbiology 43:1188–1195.
Miller, T. G., S. M. Melancon, and T. W. La Point. 1985. Use of effluent toxicity tests in predicting the effects of metals on receiving stream invertebrate communities. Pages 265–281in H. L. Bergman, R. A. Kimerle and A. W. Maki (eds.), Environmental hazard assessment of effluents. Pergamon Press, Elmsford, New York.
Mount, D. I. 1985. Scientific problems in using multispecies toxicity tests for regulating purposes. Pages 13–18in J. Cairns, Jr. (ed.), Multispecies toxicity testing. Pergamon Press, Elmsford, New York.
Muir, D. C. G., B. E. Townsend, and W. L. Lockhart. 1983. Bioavailability of six organic chemicals toChironomus tentans larvae in sediment and water.Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 2:269–281.
Odum, E. P. 1984. The mesocosm.BioScience 34:558–562.
Patten, B. C. 1983. On the quantitative dominance of indirect effects in ecosystems. Pages 27–38in W. K. Laurenroth (ed.), Analysis of ecological systems: state-of-the-art in ecological modeling. Elsevier Science Publications, New York.
Perry, J. A., E. E. Herricks, and D. J. Schaeffer. 1986. Innovative designs for environmental monitoring: are we asking the questions before the data are collected. Pages 28–49in T. P. Boyle (ed.), New approaches to monitoring of aquatic ecosystems. ASTM STP 940, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Perry, J. A., and N. H. Troelstrup, Jr. 1988. Whole ecosystem manipulation: a productive avenue for test system research?Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 7:941–951.
Perry, J. A., N. H. Troelstrup, Jr., M. Newsom, and B. Shelley. 1987. Results of recent whole ecosystem manipulations: the search for generality.Water Science Technology 19:55–71.
Rand, G. M., and S. R. Petrocelli. 1985. Fundamentals of aquatic toxicology. Hemisphere Publishers, New York. 666 pp.
Rapport, D.J., H.A. Regier, and T. C. Hutchinson. 1985. Ecosystem behavior under stress.American Naturalist 125:617–640.
Reuber, B., D. Mackay, S. Paterson, and P. Stokes. 1987. A discussion of chemical equilibria and transport at the sediment-water interface.Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 6:731–739.
Rostker, M. 1988. Ecological risk assessment for regulatory decision making. Presentation at the 1988 North American Benthological Society annual meeting. Tuscaloosa, Alabama. May 19, 1988.
Schofield, C. L. 1976. Acid precipitation: effects on fish.Ambio 5:228–230.
Slooff, W. 1985. The role of multispecies testing in aquatic toxicology. Pages 45–60in J. Cairns, Jr. (ed.), Multispecies toxicity testing. Pergamon Press, Elmsford, New York.
Solomon, K. R., J. Y. Yoo, D. Lean, N. K. Kaushik, K. E. Day, and G. L. Stephenson. 1986. Methoxychlor distribution, dissipation and effects in freshwater limnocorrals.Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 5:577–586.
Stay, F. S., D. P. Larsen, A. Katko, and C. M. Rohm. 1985. Effects of atrazine on community level responses in Taub microcosms. Pages 75–90in T. P. Boyle (ed.), Validation and predictability of laboratory methods for assessing the fate and effects of contaminants in aquatic ecosystems. ASTM STP 865. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Stephenson, G. L., N. K. Kaushik, K. R. Solomon, and K. Day. 1986. Impact of methoxychlor on freshwater communities of plankton in limnocorrals.Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 5:587–603.
Taub, F. B., and M. E. Crow. 1978. Synthesizing aquatic microcosms. Pages 78–104in J. P. Giesy, Jr. (ed.), Microcosms in ecological research. Department of Energy Symposium Series, 52 (conf. 781101), Washington, DC.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
La Point, T.W., Perry, J.A. Use of experimental ecosystems in regulatory decision making. Environmental Management 13, 539–544 (1989). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01874959
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01874959