Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Siliceous structures and silicification in flagellated protists

  • Published:
Protoplasma Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Summary

Flagellated protists produce a diverse range of siliceous structures, such as internal and external skeletons, scales, spines, bristles, cell walls, cyst walls, and loricae. The different groups of silica-depositing flagellates, i.e., chrysophytes/synurophytes, choanoflagellates, dinoflagellates, ebriids, silicoflagellates, thaumatomastigids, and the genusPetasaria are reviewed. Brief mention is also given to those algal groups in which silicification is uncommon and rare (i.e., chlorophytes, euglenophytes, haptophytes/prymnesiophytes, xanthophytes/tribophytes), but in which silicified structures nevertheless occur in few flagellate genera. Special attention is given to aspects of morphology and development of the different siliceous structures as well as on aspects of systematics and taxonomy.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allison CW (1981) Siliceous microfossils from the Lower Cambrian of northwest Canada: possible source for biogenic cherts. Science 211: 53–55

    Google Scholar 

  • Andersen RA (1987) Synurophyceae classis nov., a new class of algae. Amer J Bot 74: 337–353

    Google Scholar 

  • — (1989) The Synurophyceae and their relationship to other golden algae. Beih Nova Hedwigia 95: 1–26

    Google Scholar 

  • — (1990) The three-dimensional structure of the flagellar apparatus ofChrysosphaerella brevispina (Chrysophyceae) as viewed by high voltage electron microscopy stereo pairs. Phycologia 29: 86–97

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson OR (1994) Cytoplasmic origin and surface deposition of silicate structures in sarcodine protists. Protoplasma 181: 61–77

    Google Scholar 

  • Asmund BA, Kristiansen J (1986) The genusMallomonas (Chrysophyceae). Opera Bot 85: 1–128

    Google Scholar 

  • Beech PL, Moestrup Ø (1986) Light and electron microscopical observations on the heterotrophic protistThaumatomastix salina comb. nov. (syn.Chrysosphaerella salina) and its allies. Nord J Bot 6: 865–877

    Google Scholar 

  • —, Wetherbee R, Pickett-Heaps JD (1990) Secretion and deployment of bristles inMallomonas splendens (Synurophyceae). J Phycol 26: 112–122

    Google Scholar 

  • Booth BC, Marchant HJ (1987) Parmales, a new order of marine chrysophytes, with descriptions of three new genera and seven new species. J Phycol 23: 245–260

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandenberger E, Frey-Wyssling A (1947) Über die Membransubstanzen vonChlorochytridion tuberculatum W. Vischer. Experientia 3: 492–493

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourrelly P (1963) Loricae and cysts in the Chrysophyceae. Ann NY Acad Sci 108: 421–429

    Google Scholar 

  • Buck KR (1990) Phylum Zoomastigina, class Choanomastigotes (choanoflagellates). In: Margulis L, Corliss JO, Melkonian M, Chapman DJ (eds) Handbook of Protoctista. Jones and Bartlett, Boston, pp 194–199

    Google Scholar 

  • Chapman DV, Dodge JD, Heaney SI (1982) Cyst formation in the freshwater dinoflagellateCeratium hirundinella (Dinophyceae). J Phycol 18: 121–129

    Google Scholar 

  • Cronberg G (1986) Chrysophycean cysts and scales in lake sediments: a review. In: Kristiansen J, Andersen RA (eds) Chrysophytes: aspects and problems. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 281–315

    Google Scholar 

  • — (1988) Variability in size and ultrastructure of the statospore ofMallomonas caudata. Hydrobiologia 161: 31–39

    Google Scholar 

  • —, Sandgren CD (1986) A proposal for the development of standardized nomenclature and terminology for chrysophycean statospores. In: Kristiansen J, Andersen RA (eds) Chrysophytes: aspects and problems. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 317–328

    Google Scholar 

  • De Saedeleer H (1929) Notes de protistologie. II. Craspedomonadines: morphologie et physiologie. Recueil Inst Zool TorleyRousseau 2: 241–287

    Google Scholar 

  • Ettl H (1978) Xanthophyceae (I). G Fischer, Stuttgart [Ettl H, Gerloff J, Heynig H (eds) Süßwasserflora von Mitteleuropa, vol 3]

    Google Scholar 

  • Evered D, O'Connor M (eds) (1986) Silicon biochemistry. Wiley, Chichester (Ciba Foundation Symposium 121)

    Google Scholar 

  • Gutowski A (1993) Autökologische und taxonomische Studien schuppentragender Chrysophyceen anhand von Untersuchungen im Freiland und in Kulturen. PhD Thesis, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen G (1993) Light and electron microscopical observations of the dinoflagellateActiniscuspentasterias (Dinophyceae). J Phycol 29: 486–499

    Google Scholar 

  • Hargraves PE, Miller BT (1974) The ebridian flagellateHermesinum adriaticum Zach. Arch Protistenk 116: 280–284

    Google Scholar 

  • Henriksen P, Knipschildt F, Moestrup Ø, Thomsen HA (1993) Autecology, life history and toxicology of the silicoflagellateDictyocha speculum (Silicoflagellata, Dictyochophyceae). Phycologia 32: 29–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Hibberd DJ (1978)Bicosoeca accreta sp. nov., a flagellate accumulating extraneous silica fragments. Br Phycol J 13: 161–166

    Google Scholar 

  • Hovasse R (1932) Contribution à l'étude des silicoflagellés. Multiplication, variabilité, hérédité, affinités. Bull Biol Fr Belg 66: 447–501

    Google Scholar 

  • Huber-Pestalozzi G (1955) Das Phytoplankton des Süßwassers, Teil 4: Euglenophyceen. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart [Thienemann A (ed) Die Binnengewässer, vol 16/4]

    Google Scholar 

  • Karpov SA (1990) Analysis of orders Phalansteriida, Spongomonadida and Thaumatomonadida (Mastigophora). Zool Zh 69 (3): 5–12 (in Russian)

    Google Scholar 

  • — (1993) The ultrathin structure of the colourless flagellateThaumatomonas seravini Mylnikov et Karpov, 1993 (Thaumatomonadida). Tsitologiya 35: 8–11 (in Russian)

    Google Scholar 

  • —, Zhukov BF (1987) Cytological pecularities of the colourless flagellateThaumatomonas lauterborni. Tsitologiya 29: 1168–1171 (in Russian)

    Google Scholar 

  • Kosman CA, Thomsen HA, Østergaard JB (1993) Parmales (Chrysophyceae) from Mexican, Californian, Baltic, Arctic and Antarctic waters with description of a new subspecies and several new forms. Phycologia 32: 116–128

    Google Scholar 

  • Krienitz L, Peschke T, Giering B (1990) Lichtmikroskopische, rasterelektronenmikroskopische und röntgenmikroanalytische Untersuchungen anHemitoma maeandrocystis Skuja (Chlorophyta, Phacotaceae). Arch Protistenk 138: 159–170

    Google Scholar 

  • Kristiansen J (1982) Chrysophyceae. In: Parker SP (ed) Synopsis and classification of living organisms, vol 1. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 81–86

    Google Scholar 

  • — (1986) The ultrastructural bases of chrysophyte systematics and phytogeny. CRC Crit Rev Plant Sci 4: 149–211

    Google Scholar 

  • — (1990) Phylum Chrysophyta. In: Margulis L, Corliss JO, Melkonian M, Chapman DJ (eds) Handbook of Protoctista. Jones and Bartlett, Boston, pp 438–453

    Google Scholar 

  • Lavau S, Wetherbee R (1994) Structure and development of the scale case ofMallomonas adamas (Synurophyceae). Protoplasma 181: 259–268

    Google Scholar 

  • Leadbeater BSC (1974) Ultrastructural observations on nanoplankton collected from the coast of Jugoslavia and the Bay of Algiers. J Mar Biol Assoc UK 54: 179–196

    Google Scholar 

  • — (1979) Developmental studies on the loricate choanoflagellateStephanoeca diplocostata Ellis. I. Ultrastructure of the non-dividing cell and costal strip production. Protoplasma 98: 241–262

    Google Scholar 

  • — (1986) Silica deposition and lorica assembly in choanoflagellates. In: Leadbeater BSC, Riding R (eds) Biomineralization in lower plants and animals. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp 345–359 (Systematics Association special volume 30)

    Google Scholar 

  • — (1989) Lorica production in choanoflagellates —a model system for investigating the mechanics, controls and dynamics of secretion. J Protozool 36: 373–378

    Google Scholar 

  • — (1990) Ultrastructure and assembly of the scale case inSynura (Synurophyceae Andersen). Br Phycol J 25: 117–132

    Google Scholar 

  • — (1991) Choanoflagellate organization with special reference to loricate taxa. In: Patterson DJ, Larsen J (eds) The biology of free-living heterotrophic flagellates. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp 241–258 (Systematics Association special volume 45)

    Google Scholar 

  • —, Barker DAN (1994) Biomineralization and scale production in the Chrysophyta. In: Sandgren CD, Smol JP, Kristiansen J (eds) Chrysophyte algae: ecology, phylogeny and development. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (in press)

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee RE (1978) Formation of scales inParaphysomonas vestita and the inhibition of growth by germanium dioxide. J Protozool 25: 163–166

    Google Scholar 

  • Lipps JH (ed) (1993) Fossil prokaryotes and protists. Blackwell, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Loeblich AR III (1982) Dinophyceae. In: Parker, SP (ed) Synopsis and classification of living organisms, vol 1. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 101–115

    Google Scholar 

  • Mann DG, Marchant HJ (1989) The origins of the diatom and its life cycle. In: Green JC, Leadbeater BSC, Diver WL (eds) The chromophyte algae: problems and perspectives. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp 307–323 (Systematics Association special volume 38)

    Google Scholar 

  • Mann S, Parker SB, Perry CC, Ross MD, Skarnulis AJ, Williams RJP (1983) Problems in the understanding of biominerals. In: Westbroek P, De Jong EW (eds) Biomineralization and biological metal accumulation. Reidel, Dordrecht, pp 171–183

    Google Scholar 

  • Manton I, Parke M (1960) Further observations on small green flagellates with special reference to possible relatives ofChromulina pusilla Butcher. J Mar Biol Assoc UK 39: 275–298

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell JG, Silver MW (1986) Archaeomonad (Chrysophyta) cysts: ecological and paleoecological significance. BioSystems 19: 289–298

    Google Scholar 

  • Moestrup Ø (1979) Identification by electron microscopy of marine nanoplankton from New Zealand, including the description of four new species. NZ J Bot 17: 61–95

    Google Scholar 

  • — (1982) Flagellar structure in algae: a review, with new observations particularly on the Chrysophaceae, Phaeophyceae (Fucophyceae), Euglenophyceae, andReckertia. Phycologia 21: 427–528

    Google Scholar 

  • — (1994) Current status of chrysophyte “splinter groups”: synurophytes, pedinellids, sillicoflagellates. In: Sandgren CD, Smol JP, Kristiansen J (eds) Chrysophyte algae: ecology, phylogeny and development. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (in press)

    Google Scholar 

  • —, Thomsen HA (1990)Dictyocha speculum (Silicoflagellata, Dictyochophyceae), studies on armoured and unarmoured stages. Biol Skrifter 37: 1–57

    Google Scholar 

  • Mylnikov AP, Karpov SA (1993) A new representative of colourless flagellates,Thaumatomonas seravini sp.n. (Thaumatomonadida, Protista). Zool Zh 72 (3): 5–10 (in Russian)

    Google Scholar 

  • Nicholls KH (1979) IsHymenomonas prenanti Lecal (Prymnesiophyceae) really the colourless flagellateGyromitus disomatus Skuja? Phycologia 18: 420–423

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker BC (1969) Occurrence of silica in brown and green algae. Can J Bot 47: 537–540

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson DJ, Zölffel M (1991) Heterotrophic flagellates of uncertain taxonomic position. In: Patterson DJ, Larsen J (eds) The biology of free-living heterotrophic flagellates. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp 427–476 (Systematics Association special volume 45)

    Google Scholar 

  • Pienaar RN (1980) Observations on the structure and composition of the cyst ofPrymnesium (Prymnesiophyceae). Proc Electron Microsc Soc S Afr10: 73–74

    Google Scholar 

  • Pipes LD, Leedale GF (1992) Scale formation inTessellaria volvocina (Synurophyceae). Br Phycol J 27: 11–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Preisig HR (1986) Biomineralization in the Chrysophyceae. In: Leadbeater BSC, Riding R (eds) Biomineralization in lower plants and animals. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp 327–344 (Systematics Association special volume 30)

    Google Scholar 

  • — (1994) A modern concept of chrysophycean classification. In: Sandgren CD, Smol JP, Kristiansen J (eds) Chrysophyte algae: ecology, phylogeny and development. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (in press)

    Google Scholar 

  • —, Hibberd DJ (1982) Ultrastructure and taxonomy ofParaphysomonas (Chrysophyceae) and related genera 2. Nord J Bot 2: 601–638

    Google Scholar 

  • — — (1983) Ultrastructure and taxonomy ofParaphysomonas (Chrysophyceae) and related genera 3. Nord J Bot 3: 695–723

    Google Scholar 

  • —, Vørs N, Hällfors G (1991) Diversity of heterotrophic heterokont flagellates. In: Patterson DJ, Larsen J (eds) The biology of free-living heterotrophic flagellates. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp 361–399 (Systematics Association special volume 45)

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandgren CD (1983 a) Survival strategies of chrysophycean flagellates: reproduction and the formation of resistant resting cysts. In: Fryxell GA (ed) Survival strategies of the algae. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 23–48

    Google Scholar 

  • — (1983 b) Morphological variability in populations of chrysophycean resting cysts. I. Genetic (interclonal) and encystment temperature effects on morphology. J Phycol 19: 64–70

    Google Scholar 

  • — (1989) SEM investigations of statospore (stomatocyst) development in diverse members of the Chrysophyceae and Synurophyceae. Beih Nova Hedwigia 95: 45–69

    Google Scholar 

  • — (1991) Chrysophyte reproduction and resting cysts: a paleolimnologist's primer. J Paleolimnol 5: 1–9

    Google Scholar 

  • —, Barlow SB (1989) Siliceous scale production in chrysophyte algae. II. SEM observations regarding the effects of metabolic inhibitors on scale regeneration in laboratory population of scale-freeSynura petersenii cells. Beih Nova Hedwigia 95: 27–44

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmid A-MM (1994) Aspects of morphogenesis and function of diatom cell walls with implications for taxonomy. Protoplasma 181: 43–60

    Google Scholar 

  • Shirkina NI (1987) Morfologija i zhiznennyj ciklThaumatomonas lauterborni De Saedeleer (Mastigophora Diesing). In: Fauna i biologija presnovodnych organizmov. Nauka, Leningrad (St. Petersburg), pp 87–107 (in Russian)

    Google Scholar 

  • Silva PC (1980) Names of classes and families of living algae. Reg Vegetabile 103: 1–156

    Google Scholar 

  • Simpson TL, Volcani BE (eds) (1981) Silicon and siliceous structures in biological systems. Springer, New York Berlin Heidelberg

    Google Scholar 

  • Siver PA (1991) The biology ofMallomonas: morphology, taxonomy and ecology. Kluwer, Dordrecht

    Google Scholar 

  • —, Glew JR (1990) The arrangement of scales and bristles onMallomonas (Chrysophyceae): a proposed mechanism for the formation of the cell covering. Can J Bot 68: 374–380

    Google Scholar 

  • Smol JP (1988) Chrysophycean microfossils in paleolimnological studies. Palaeogeog Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 62: 287–297

    Google Scholar 

  • — (1994) Application of chrysophytes to problems in paleoecology. In: Sandgren CD, Smol JP, Kristiansen J (eds) Chrysophyte algae: ecology, phylogeny and development. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (in press)

    Google Scholar 

  • Spaulding S (1992) Bibliography and taxa of silicoflagellates III. INA Newslett (Proceedings International Nannoplankton Association) 14: 42–90

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg C, Klee R (1984) Zur Chemie vonTrachelomonas-Loricae. Arch Protistenk 128: 283–294

    Google Scholar 

  • Swale EMF, Belcher JH (1974)Gyromitus disomatus Skuja —a free-living colourless flagellate. Arch Protistenk 116: 211–220

    Google Scholar 

  • —, (1975)Gyromitus limax nov. sp. —free-living colourless amoeboflagellate. Arch Protistenk 117: 20–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Tappan H (1980) The paleobiology of plant protists. Freeman, San Francisco

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor FJR (ed) (1987) The biology of dinoflagellates. Blackwell, Oxford (Botanical monographs 21)

    Google Scholar 

  • — (1990) Ebridians. In: Margulis L, Corliss JO, Melkonian M, Chapman DJ (eds) Handbook of Protoctista. Jones and Bartlett, Boston, pp 720–721

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomsen HA, Buck KR, Coale SL, Garrison DL, Gowing MM (1990) Loricate choanoflagellates (Acanthoecidae, Choanoflagellida) from the Weddell Sea, Antarctica. Zool Scripta 19: 367–387

    Google Scholar 

  • —, Buck KR (1991) Choanoflagellate diversity with particular emphasis on the Acanthoecidae. In: Patterson DJ, Larsen J (eds) The biology of free-living heterotrophic flagellates. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp 259–284 (Systematics Association special volume 45)

    Google Scholar 

  • —, Hällfors G, Hällfors S, Ikävalko J (1993) New observations on the heterotrophic protist genusThaumatomastix (Thaumatomastigaceae, Protista incertae sedis), with particular emphasis on material from the Baltic Sea. Ann Bot Fenn 30: 87–108

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Valkenburg SD (1971 a) Observations on the fine structure ofDictyocha fibula Ehrenberg. I. The skeleton. J Phycol 7: 113–118

    Google Scholar 

  • — (1971 b) Observations on the fine structure ofDictyocha fibula Ehrenberg. II. The protoplast. J Phycol 7: 118–132

    Google Scholar 

  • — (1980) Silicoflagellates. In: Cox ER (ed) Phytoflagellates. Elsevier, North-Holland, New York, pp 335–350

    Google Scholar 

  • —, Norris RE (1970) The growth and morphology of the silicoflagellateDictyocha fibula Ehrenberg in culture. J Phycol 6: 48–54

    Google Scholar 

  • Wee JL, Hood CS, Andersen RA (1992) Phylogenetic relationships among the colonial Synurophyceae: an ontogenetic model based on scale biogenesis. J Phycol 28 [Suppl]: 4

    Google Scholar 

  • Wetherbee R, Koutoulis A, Beech PL (1989) The role of the cytoskeleton during the assembly, secretion and deployment of scales and spines. In: Coleman AW, Goff LJ, Stein-Taylor JR (eds) Algae as experimental systems. AR Liss, New York, pp 93–108

    Google Scholar 

  • —, Koutoulis A, Andersen RA (1992) The microarchitecture of the chrysophycean cytoskeleton. In: Menzel D (ed) The cytoskeleton of the algae. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 1–17

    Google Scholar 

  • —, Ludwig M, Koutoulis A (1994) Immunological and ultrastructural studies of scale development and deployment inMallomonas andApedinella. In: Sandgren CD, Smol JP, Kristiansen J (eds) Chrysophyte algae: ecology, phylogeny and development. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (in press)

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institut für Systematische Botanik, Universität Zürich, Zollikerstrasse 107, CH-8008, Zürich, Switzerland

    H. R. Preisig

Authors
  1. H. R. Preisig
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Preisig, H.R. Siliceous structures and silicification in flagellated protists. Protoplasma 181, 29–42 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01666387

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01666387

Keywords

Search

Navigation