Skip to main content
Log in

Analyse der Kräfteverhältnisse bei Klettervögeln

Analysis of force relationships in climbing birds

  • Published:
Journal für Ornithologie Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Zusammenfassung

Die vonStolpe (1932) publizierte Vorstellung über die Kräfteverhältnisse bei einem auf einer senkrechten Unterlage kletternden Specht wird kritisiert und ein neues Modell für die Kräfte an kletternden Vögeln, das alle Neigungswinkel der Unterlage berücksichtigt, entworfen. Die Vögel werden in solche, die mit einem Stützschwanz klettern und solche, die nur mit den Füßen klettern, unterteilt.

  1. 1.

    Im Gegensatz zum früheren ModellStolpes werden im neuen Modell die Momente berücksichtigt, die sich aus der geometrischen Relation der Ansatzpunkte der Kräfte an Füßen, Schwanz und Schwerpunkt ergeben.

  2. 2.

    Dies führt zur Formulierung der Gleichungen für die Gleichgewichte von Kräften und Momenten.

  3. 3.

    Zur vollständigen Lösung dieser Gleichungen muß neben anderem die Aufteilung des Gewichtes auf Füße und Schwanz des Vogels gemessen werden.

  4. 4.

    Hackende Bewegungen wirken sich im System als Veränderung der Momente aus.

  5. 5.

    Beim Klettern kann auch bei Vögeln mit Stützschwanz der Vortrieb nur mit den Beinen erzeugt werden, die somit alleine gegen Schwerkraft und Trägheitskräfte agieren.

  6. 6.

    Bewegungen in der Horizontalen erzeugen laterale Kräfte, die sonst an ungewölbten Unterlagen nicht auftreten.

  7. 7.

    Es wird untersucht, inwieweit Klettervögel unter verschiedenen Bedingungen ihren Kraft-aufwand minimieren können.

  8. 8.

    Die Voraussagen des ModellsStolpes und des neuen Modells werden einander gegenübergestellt.

  9. 9.

    Die wenigen morphologischen Schlußfolgerungen, die gezogen werden können, sind u. a., daß für Spechtähnliche ein langer Schwanz nicht unbedingt von Vorteil ist, und daß es für Vögel ohne Stützschwanz am günstigsten sein müßte, lange, stark beugbare Beine zu besitzen.

  10. 10.

    Die Untersuchung zeigt, daß es ohne Messungen am lebenden Vogel nicht möglich ist, das Kräftesystem vollständig zu bestimmen. Daher laufen funktionell-morphologische Untersuchungen, die sich nicht auf solchen und nicht auf Beobachtungen zu Ökologie und Verhalten der Vögel stützen können, Gefahr, unvollständige oder inkorrekte Ergebnisse zu erbringen.

Summary

The concept of force relationships acting on a woodpecker climbing on a vertical surface as postulated byStolpe (1932) is reviewed and rejected because of incompleteness. A new model, which takes into consideration all angles of inclination of the substrate and the rotational consequences of forces, is postulated for the forces acting on climbing birds. For the purposes of this model, birds will be divided into those which climb with the help of a tail-brace and those which climb only with their feet; variants of the model are described for each. The new model is based upon free-body diagram analyses of forces acting at the center of gravity of the bird and at the points of contact between the bird and its substrate. The details of the nuthatch (tailless) climbing are summarized in the figures; these include the minimum measurements that must be made and the equations needed to solve for all forces acting on the bird. Sample analyses are presented for a bird of 50 g assuming values for F1 to be 30, 20, 10 and 5 g respectively; the resulting forces acting on the feet and the tail are shown in the polygones of forces drawn from the center of gravity. The general conclusions arising from our analysis are:

  1. 1.

    In contrast to the earlier model ofStolpe, the new model takes the moments (torques) of forces into consideration which result from the geometrical relationships of the points of application of the forces on the feet, the tail and the center of gravity. The contact point of the tail or of the posterior claw (tailless model) is chosen as the center of rotation for purposes of analysis as shown in the free-body diagrams.

  2. 2.

    These diagrams lead to the formulation of the equations for the sums of the forces and of the moments. We assume static conditions, hence all equations are set equal to zero.

  3. 3.

    It is shown that for a complete solution of these equations, among others, the division of the bird's weight acting on the feet and on the tail must be measured. These are the F1 and F2 forces which cannot be measured directly but calculated from the Fy or Fz forces measured parallel to the surface of the substrate.

  4. 4.

    Pecking movements are obtained from the system as changes in the moments.

  5. 5.

    When climbing all birds, including those using the tail as a support, produce the upwards (forward) propulsion only with the legs which alone act against the force of gravity and the inertia of the birds mass (i.e., produce the force needed to counteract the pull of gravity and needed for forward acceleration).

  6. 6.

    Movements in the horizontal direction produce lateral forces which otherwise do not appear in a flat support.

  7. 7.

    It was investigated, to what extent climbing birds can minimize their force expenditure under different conditions.

  8. 8.

    The predictions of the model ofStolpe and of the new model are compared with one another. These can be done directly when the substrate is vertical, but a general comparison must be done independent of the angle of inclination of the substrate. It is shown that it is not necessarily advantageous for the bird to be pressed as close as possible to the substrate and that it is not necessarily advantageous to maximize the force carried by the tail (i. e., minimize the force on the feet).

  9. 9.

    The minimum morphological conclusions that can be reached are, among others, that for a woodpecker (tailed) climber a long tail is not necessarily an advantage and that for birds without a supporting tail, it is most advantageous to possess long legs that may be flexed to a great degree, i. e., that one leg can be fully extended and the other fully flexed so that the center of gravity is brought above or below the extended leg.

  10. 10.

    This investigation shows that without measurements on living birds, it is not possible to fully determine the system of forces acting on the bird. Therefore, unless functional-morphological investigations are based upon the necessary morphological-physiological measurements and upon observations of the ecology and behavior of the birds, the danger of reaching incomplete or incorrect conclusions cannot be avoided.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Literatur

  • Bock, W. (1974): The avian skeletomuscular system. In:Farner, D. S. &J. R. King: Avian biology, Bd. 4: 119–257. New York & London.

  • Ders.W. D. Miller (1959): The scansorial foot of the woodpeckers, with comments on the evolution of perching and climbing feet in birds. Amer. Mus. Novitates 1931.

  • Ders. (1965): Adaptation and the form-function complex. Evolution 19: 269–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feduccia, A. (1973): Evolutionary trends in the Neotropical ovenbirds and woodhewers. Orn. Monogr. 13.

  • Jackson, J. A. (1971): The adaptive significance of reversed sexual dimorphism in tail length of woodpeckers: an alternative hypothesis. Bird Banding 42: 18–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lecher (1973): Lehrbuch der Physik. 13. Aufl. Leipzig.

  • Richards, J. A., F. W. Sears, M. R. Wehr &M. W. Zemansky (1960): Modern University Physics. Reading, Mass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, F. (1942): Adaptive modifications for tree-trunk foraging in birds. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. 46: 317–368.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rüger, A. (1972): Funktionell-anatomische Untersuchungen an Spechten. Z. wiss. Zool. 184: 63–163.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scharnke, H. (1930): Physiologisch-anatomische Studien am Fuß der Spechte. J. Orn. 78: 308–327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Short, L. L. (1970): Reversed sexual dimorphism in tail length and foraging differences in woodpeckers. Bird Banding 41: 85–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spring, L. W. (1965): Climbing and pecking adaptions in some North American woodpeckers. Condor 67: 457–488.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stolpe, M. (1932): Physiologisch-anatomische Untersuchungen über die hintere Extremität der Vögel. J. Orn. 80: 161–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Winkler, H. (1972): Beiträge zur Ethologie des Blutspechts(Dendrocopos syriacus). Das nicht-reproduktive Verhalten. Z. Tierpsychol. 31: 300–325.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Winkler, H., Bock, W.J. Analyse der Kräfteverhältnisse bei Klettervögeln. J Ornithol 117, 397–418 (1976). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01647169

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01647169

Navigation