Abstract
The influential Miller-Mowrer theory of fear and avoidance served well for over 30 years, but the need for revisions is now irresistible. The evidence in support of the first part of the theory, the conditioned acquisition of fear, is reviewed briefly and the major weaknesses of the theory are identified. The insufficiency of the second part of the theory, which deals with the persistence of avoidance behavior, is noted. Six emerging themes and theories of anxiety are described and briefly compared: Lang's bioinformational theory, Gray's neuropsychological theory, Beck's cognitive theory, Eysenk's neobehavioristic theory, emotional processing, and Bandura's self-efficacy theory. Attention is given to “the 3 pathways to fear acquisition” hypothesis, and to the role of safety signals in maintaining avoidance behavior. This subject is undergoing a period of healthy ferment, and significant advances in understanding can be expected to occur in the near future.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Baker, T., Cannon, D., Tiffany, S., & Gino, A. (1984). Cardiac response as an index of the effect of aversion therapy.Behavior Research and Therapy, 22 403–412.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory.Psychological Review, 84 191–215.
Beck, A. (1974).Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. New York: International Universities Press.
Beck, A. (1982). Anxiety and everyday life. Unpublished manuscript, Brown University, Providence, RI.
Bersh, P. (1980). Eysenck's theory of incubation: A critical analysis.Behavior Research and Therapy, 18 11–18.
Bower, G. (1980). Mood and memory.American Psychologist, 36 129–148.
Boyd, T., & Levis, D. (1983). Exposure is a necessary condition for fear reduction.Behaviour Research and Therapy, 21 143–150.
Butler, G., & Mathews, A. (1983). Cognitive processes in anxiety. In J. Teasdale & S. Rachman. (Eds.),Cognitions and mood. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Chambless, D. (1982). The revised agoraphobic cognitions questionnaire. AABT Conference, Los Angeles.
DeSilva, P., & Rachman, S. (1981). Is exposure a necessary condition for fear-reduction?Behavior Research and Therapy, 19 227–232.
DeSilva, P., & Rachman, S. (1983). Exposure and fear reduction.Behavior Research and Therapy, 21 151–152.
DeSilva, P., Rachman, S., & Seligman, M. (1977). Prepared phobias and obsessions.Behaviour Research and Therapy, 15 65–77.
Eysenck, H. J. (1953).The dynamics of anxiety and hysteria. London: Routledge.
Eysenck, H. J. (1979). The learning theory model of neurosis.Behaviour Research and Therapy, 14 251–267.
Eysenck, H. J. (1982). Noebehavioristic (S-R) theory. In G. Wilson & C. Franks. (Eds.),Contemporary behavior therapy. New York: Guilford Press.
Gelder, M. (1982). Is exposure a necessary and sufficient condition for the treatment of agoraphobia? In J. Boulougouris (Ed.),Learning theory approaches to psychiatry. Chichester: Wiley.
Gray, J. (1971).The psychology of fear and stress. London: Weidenfeld.
Gray, J. (1982).The neuropsychology of anxiety. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hallam, R. S. (1978). Agoraphobia.British Journal of Psychiatry, 133 314–319.
Hallam, R. (1983). Agoraphobia: Deconstructing a clinical syndrome.Bulletin British Psychological Association, 36 337–340.
Hallam, R., & Rachman, S. (1976). Current status of aversion therapy. In M. Hersen, P. Miller, & R. Eisler (Eds.),Progress in behavior modification. New York: Academic Press.
Klein, D. (1983). Etiological and pathophysiological inferences from the pharmacological treatment of anxiety. NIMH Conference of Anxiety Disorders, Tuxedo, NY.
Kleinknecht, R. (1982). The origins and remission of fear in a group of tarantula enthusiasts.Behaviour Research and Therapy, 20 437–444.
Lang, P. (1968). Fear reduction and fear behavior. In J. Shlein (Ed.),Research in psychotherapy. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Lang, P. (1977). A bio-informational theory of emotional imagery.Psychophysiology, 16 495–512.
Lang, P. (1983). The cognitive psychophysiology of emotion: Fear and anxiety, Unpublished manuscript.
Mathews, A., Gelder, M., & Johnston, D. (1982).Agoraphobia. London: Guilford Press.
Mineka, S. (1983). Animal models of anxiety-based disorders: Their usefulness and limitations. NIMH Conference on Anxiety Disorders, Tuxedo, NY.
Mowrer, O. H. (1939). A stimulus response theory of anxiety.Psychological Review, 46 553–565.
Mowrer, O. H. (1960).Learning theory and behavior. New York: Wiley.
Ohman, A., Frederikson, M., & Hugdahl, K. (1978). Towards an experimental model of simple phobic reaction.Behaviour Analysis and Modification, 2 240–245.
Öst, L., & Hugdahl, K. (1981). Acquisition of agoraphobia, mode of onset and anxiety response patterns.Behaviour Research and Therapy, 21 624–532.
Öst, L. G., Johansson, J., & Jerremalm, A. (1982). Individual response patterns and the effects of different behavioral methods on claustrophobia.Behaviour Research and Therapy, 20 445–460.
Rachman, S. (1978).Fear and courage. San Francisco: Freeman.
Rachman, S. (1979). The return of fear.Behaviour Research and Therapy, 17 164–167.
Rachman, S. (1980). Emotional processing.Behaviour Research and Therapy, 18 51–60.
Rachman, S. (1981). The primacy of affect.Behaviour Research and Therapy, 19 27–290.
Rachman, S. (1983). The modification of agoraphobic behavior: Some fresh possibilities.Behaviour Research and Therapy, 21 567–574.
Rachman, S. (1984). Agoraphobia: A safety signal perspective.Behaviour Research and Therapy, 22 59–70.
Rachman, S., & Hodgson, R. (1974). Synchrony and desynchrony in fear and avoidance.Behaviour Research and Therapy, 12 311–318.
Rimm, D. (1977). An exploratory investigation of the origin and maintenance of phobias.Behaviour Research and Therapy, 15 231–238.
Seligman, M. (1971). Phobias and preparedness.Behavior Therapy, 2 307–320.
Seligman, M., & Binnik, Y. (1977). The safety signal hypothesis. In H. Davis & H. Hurwitz (eds.),Pavlovian-operant interactions. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Seligman, M., & Johnston, J. (1971). A cognitive theory of avoidance learning. In J. McGuigan & B. Lunsden (Eds.),Contemporary approaches to conditioning and learning. New York: Wiley.
Teasdale, J. (1983). Negative thinking in depression. In J. Teasdale & S. Rachman (Eds.),Cognitions and mood. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Thorpe, G., & Burns, L. (1983).The agoraphobic syndrome. Chichester: Wiley.
Vermilyea, J., Boice, R., & Barlow, D. (1984). Rachman and Hodgson (1974). A decade later: Desynchronous response systems.Behaviour Research and Therapy, 22 615–622.
Williams, S. S., Dooseman, G., & Kleifeld, E. (1983). Comparative effectiveness of guided and exposure treatment.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51 165–172.
Wilson, G. T. (1982). Adult disorders. In G. T. Wilson & C. Franks (Eds.),Contemporary Behavior Therapy New York: Guilford Press.
Wolpe, J. (1958).Psychotherapy by reciprocal inhibition. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Wolpe, J., & Rachman, S. (1960). Psychoanalytic evidence: The case of Little Hans.Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, 131 135–145.
Zajonc, R. B. (1980). Feeling and thinking.American Psychologist, 5 151–175.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Rachman, S. Anxiety disorders: Some emerging theories. Journal of Behavioral Assessment 6, 281–299 (1984). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01321322
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01321322