Theoretical and methodological difficulties in Bandura's self-efficacy theory

Abstract

Perceived self-efficacy was introduced by Bandura (1977) as “an integrative theoretical framework to explain and predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment” (p. 191). Subsequent empirical studies appear to support the contention that self-efficacy ratings on specific behavioral tasks are accurate predictors of subsequent behavioral performance on those tasks. In this paper we examine the conceptual basis of self-efficacy theory. In particular, the distinction between outcome and efficacy expectations is analyzed in relation to fear and avoidant behavior. We conclude that self-efficacy theory is conceptually problematic and, in particular, that the central concept of efficacy expectations is not unambiguously differentiated from outcome expectations, despite Bandura's (1978) claim to the contrary. Similarly, we suggest that what is actually being assessed in the empirical studies is unclear. We conclude that the empirical findings are less impressive when the circumscribed nature of the behavioral tasks is recognized. Finally, we suggest that resolutions of both the conceptual and methodological difficulties are necessary before Bandura's (1978) claim, that self-efficacy is a unifying construct, can be properly evaluated.