Summary
We examine a family of tall (up to 20 km) cumulonimbus complexes that develop almost daily over an adjacent pair of flat islands in the Maritime Continent region north of Darwin, Australia, and that are known locally as “Hectors”. Nine cases observed by a rawinsonde network, surface observations (including radiation and soil measurements), the TRMM/TOGA radar, and one day of aircraft photography are used to analyse the development, rainfall, surface energy budgets, and vertical structure of these convective systems.
The systems undergo convective merging which is similar to that observed in previous Florida studies and is multiplicative in terms of rainfall. About 90% of the total rainfall comes from the merged systems, which comprise less than 10% of convective systems, and this has implications for the manner in which tropical rainfall is parameterised in largerscale numerical models. By comparison to the West Indies, GATE, and Florida, the Hector environment contains a weaker basic flow, with less vertical shear. The main thermodynamic difference is that the Darwin area has an unstable upper troposphere and very high tropopause. Numerical modelling results support earlier observations of updraughts in excess of 30 ms−1 in this region, but show that only modest convective drafts are experienced below the freezing level (5 km).
The surface fluxes over the islands are estimated from a Monash University study to be mainly in latent form from evapotranspiration, with a Bowen ratio only slightly larger than that commonly observed over oceans. These surface fluxes are crucial to the development of a suitable mixed layer to support deep convection. The flux estimates agree with the observed changes below the cloud base and provide sufficient information for calculations of the bounds on precipitation efficiency. Of particular interest are the observations of Hector development on a day when the islands were under a dense cirrus overcast. We find that the islands still provide sufficient net sensible and latent heat fluxes to initiate convection.
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Simpson, J., Keenan, T.D., Ferrier, B. et al. Cumulus mergers in the maritime continent region. Meteorl. Atmos. Phys. 51, 73–99 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01080881
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01080881