Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Environmental factors and cultural measures affecting the nitrate content in spinach

  • Special review issue
  • Published:
Fertilizer research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Environmental factors and cultural measures affecting the NO3-content in spinach were studied indoors, in water-, sand- and soil-culture experiments. In the field, the influences of variations in N-fertilizing practices and in spinach varieties were also tested.

High NO3-contents in spinach were found with low light intensities, with low soil-moisture contents, and with high temperatures. NO3-contents increased with increasing K-dressing (less so with KCl than with K2SO4), but decreased with increasing soil pH. In pot experiments, positive results were obtained with sulphur-coated urea, with farmyard manure and with pigmanure slurry.

Application of Mo as a spray onto spinach leaves, and variations in P-dressings and in soil P-status were found not to affect the NO3-content in spinach.

In pot experiments, NO3-contents decreased with progressing plant age (in autumn less so than in spring). Within spinach plants, NO3-contents were highest in petioles and older leaves. Varietal differences in NO3-contents were observed in a pot- and a field experiment.

In pot- and field experiments, partial or complete replacement of NO3-N by NH4-N in general caused the NO3-content in spinach to decrease. However, such a replacement was shown not always to result in lower NO3-contents. Additional factors involved are e.g. the use and effectiveness of nitrification inhibitors, the soil type and the amount of available N.

The amount of N added and, in the field, the amount of N available in the soil before sowing, strongly affected the NO3-content in spinach. Under field conditions, nitrogen appeared to be taken up from the top 60 cm of the soil profile.

The effects of variations in timing of nitrogen applications were absent in a pot experiment and not consistent in field experiments.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Abbreviations

A:

= sum of inorganic anions (Cl + H2PO4 + SO4 + NO3) in meq per kg DM (H2PO4 stands for total P)

ADI:

= acceptable daily intake

C:

= sum of inorganic cations (Ca + Mg + Na + K) in meq per kg DM

C-A:

= excess of inorganic cations over inorganic anions in plants, meq per kg DM; NH4-ions are not included

CEC:

= cation exchange capacity

DCD:

= dicyandiamide (C2H4N4)

DM:

= dry matter

FW:

= fresh weight

FYM:

= farmyard manure

JECFA:

= Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives

N-serve:

= nitrification inhibitor, containing 2-chloro-6-(trichloromethyl) pyridine (C6H3NCl4), known as nitrapyrin, as active compound

org N:

= organic nitrogen (= total N — NO3-N)

PMS:

= pig-manure slurry

SCU:

= sulphur-coated urea

WHC:

= water-holding capacity

WHO:

= World Health Organization

References

  1. Acar I and Ahrens E (1978) Zum Problem des Nitrat- und Nitritgehaltes bei Gemüse, insbesondere Spinat. 1. Einfluss der Stickstoffdüngung und der Verarbeitung zu Gefrierspinat. Chem Mikrobiol Technol Lebensm 5, 170–174

    Google Scholar 

  2. Achtzehn MK and Hawat H (1969) Die Anreicherung von Nitrat in den Gemüsenarten — eine Möglichkeit der Nitratintoxikation bei Säuglingen. Nahrung 13, 667–676

    Google Scholar 

  3. Achtzehn MK and Hawat H (1971) Einfluss industrieller Vorbehandlung auf den Gehalt essentieller und nicht essentieller Inhaltsstoffe im Spinat. Nahrung 15, 527–537

    Google Scholar 

  4. Aldershoff WG (1982) Nitraat in gewassen en onze gezondheid. Bedrijfsontwikkeling 13, 273–280

    Google Scholar 

  5. Allison FE (1973) Soil organic matter and its role in crop production. New York: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co

    Google Scholar 

  6. Anonymous (1981) Naar minder nitraat in bladgroenten. Persbericht Ministerie van Landbouw en Visserij No. 442, 7 december 1981

  7. Armijo R and Coulson AH (1975) Epidemiology of stomach cancer in Chile — the role of nitrogen fertilizers. Int J Epidemiol 4, 301–309

    Google Scholar 

  8. Aslam M, Oaks A and Huffaker RC (1976) Effect of light and glucose on the induction of nitrate reductase and on the distribution of nitrate in etiolated barley leaves. Plant Physiol (Bethesda) 58, 588–591

    Google Scholar 

  9. Aworh OC, Hicks JR, Minotti PL and Lee C (1980) Effects of plant age and nitrogen fertilization on nitrate accumulation and postharvest nitrite accumulation in fresh spinach. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 105, 18–20

    Google Scholar 

  10. Barker AV (1975) Organic vs. inorganic nutrition and horticultural crop quality. HortScience 10, 50–53.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Barker AV and Maynard DN (1971) Nutritional factors affecting nitrate accumulation in spinach. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 2, 471–478

    Google Scholar 

  12. Barker AV and Mills HA (1980) Ammonium and nitrate nutrition of horticultural crops. Hortic Rev 2, 395–423

    Google Scholar 

  13. Barker AV, Maynard DN and Mills HA (1974) Variations in nitrate accumulation among spinach cultivars. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 99, 132–134

    Google Scholar 

  14. Barker AV, Peck NH and MacDonald GE (1971) Nitrate accumulation in vegetables. I. Spinach grown in upland soils. Agron J 63, 126–129

    Google Scholar 

  15. Becker KF (1965) Nitrat- and Nitritgehalt in Spinat. Bundesgesundheitsblatt 8, 246–248

    Google Scholar 

  16. Beevers L and Hageman RH (1969) Nitrate reduction in higher plants. Annu Rev Plant Physiol 20, 495–522

    Google Scholar 

  17. Beevers L and Hageman RH (1972) The role of light in nitrate metabolism in higher plants. Photophysiology 7, 85–113

    Google Scholar 

  18. Bengtsson BL (1968) Effect of nitrification inhibitor on yield and nitrate content of spinach. Z Pflanzenernaehr Bodenkd 121, 1–4

    Google Scholar 

  19. Ben Zioni A, Vaadia Y and Lips SH (1971) Nitrate uptake by roots as regulated by nitrate reduction products of the shoot. Physiol Plant 24, 288–290

    Google Scholar 

  20. Bodiphala T and Ormrod DP (1971) Factors affecting the nitrate content of vegetable and fruit foods. Can Inst Food Technol J 4, 6–8

    Google Scholar 

  21. Boek K and Schuphan W (1959) Der Nitratgehalt von Gemüsen in Abhängigkeit von Pflanzenart und einigen Umweltfaktoren. Qual Plant Mat Veg 5, 199–208

    Google Scholar 

  22. Böhmer M (1980) Der Mineralstickstoffgehalt von Böden mit Feldgemüsebau und seine Bedeutung für die Stickstoffernährung der Pflanze. Dissertation Universität Hannover

  23. Boon J van der and Pieters JH (1981) Stikstofaanbod uit grond en bemesting, en nitraat in spinazie. Stikstofbemestingsproeven bij spinazie op zeeklei in 1980. Nota 97, Instituut voor Bodemvruchtbaarheid te Haren

  24. Breimer T and Slangen JHG (1981) Pretreatment of soil samples before NO3-N analysis. Neth J Agric Sci 29, 15–22

    Google Scholar 

  25. Breteler H (1973) A comparison between ammonium and nitrate nutrition of young sugar-beet plants grown in nutrient solutions at constant acidity. 1. Production of dry matter, ionic balance and chemical composition. Neth J Agric Sci 21, 227–244

    Google Scholar 

  26. Briggs GG (1975) The behaviour of the nitrification inhibitor “N-Serve” in broadcast and incorporated applications to soil. J Sc Food Agric 26, 1083–1092

    Google Scholar 

  27. Brink NDH van de, Coster DRA and Drost-de Wijs H (1968) Nitraat en nitriet in spinazie. Voeding en Techniek 2, 1122–1126

    Google Scholar 

  28. Brown JR and Smith GE (1967) Nitrate accumulation in vegetable crops as influenced by soil fertility practices. Missouri Agric Exp Stn Res Bull 920

  29. Brown JR, Lambeth VN and Blevins DG (1969) Nutrient interaction effects on yield and chemical composition of spinach and green beans. Missouri Agric Exp Stn Res Bull 963

  30. Buishand Tj (1974) Teelt van spinazie. Consulentschap in Algemene Dienst voor de Groenteteelt in de Vollegrond in Nederland te Alkmaar

  31. Burg PFJ van, Groot EH, Keller GHM and Rauw GJG (1967) De stikstofbemesting van spinazie in verband met opbrengst en kwaliteit. Onderzoek 1967. Versl Landbouwkd Bur Ned Stikstofmestst Ind no B 163

  32. Burg PFJ van, Groot EH, Keller GHM and Rauw GJG (1969) Stikstofbemesting spinazie, 1968. Versl Landbouwkd Bur Ned Stikstofmestst Ind no B 187

  33. Cantliffe DJ (1972-1) Nitrate accumulation in spinach grown under different light intensities. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 97, 152–154

    Google Scholar 

  34. Cantliffe DJ (1972-2) Nitrate accumulation in vegetable crops as affected by photoperiod and light duration. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 97, 414–418

    Google Scholar 

  35. Cantliffe DJ (1972-3) Nitrate accumulation in spinach grown at different temperatures. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 97, 674–676

    Google Scholar 

  36. Cantliffe DJ (1973-1) Nitrate accumulation in table beets and spinach as affected by nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium nutrition and light intensity. Agron J 65, 563–565

    Google Scholar 

  37. Cantliffe DJ (1973-2) Nitrate accumulation in spinach cultivars and plant introductions. Can J Plant Sci 53, 365–367

    Google Scholar 

  38. Cantliffe DJ and Phatak SC (1974-1) Effect of herbicides on weed control and nitrate accumulation in spinach. HortScience 9, 470–472

    Google Scholar 

  39. Cantliffe DJ and Phatak SC (1974-2) Nitrate accumulation in greenhouse vegetable crops. Can J Plant Sci 54, 783–788

    Google Scholar 

  40. Cantliffe DJ, MacDonald GE and Peck NH (1974) Reduction of nitrate accumulation by molybdenum in spinach grown at low pH. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 5, 273–282

    Google Scholar 

  41. Coïc Y, Lesaint Ch and LeRoux F (1961) Comparison de l'influence de la nutrition nitrique et ammoniacale combinée ou non avec une déficience en acide phosphorique, sur l'absorption et le métabolisme des anions-cations et plus particulièrement des acides organiques chez le maïs. Comparison du maïs et de la tomate quant à l'effet de la nature de l'alimentation azotée. Ann Physiol Vég (Paris) 3, 141–163

    Google Scholar 

  42. Coïc Y, Lesaint Ch and LeRoux F (1962) Effets de la nature ammoniacale ou nitrique de l'alimentation azotée et du changement de la nature de cette alimentation sur le métabolisme des anions et cations chez la tomate. Ann Physiol Vég (Paris) 4, 117–125

    Google Scholar 

  43. Cools MH, Meijs MQ van der, Roorda van Eysinga JPNL and Stolk JH (1980) Het nitraatgehalte van enkele spinazierassen geteeld onder glas. Intern verslag no. 1. Proefstation voor Tuinbouw onder Glas te Naaldwijk, januari 1980

  44. Corré WJ and Breimer T (1979) Nitrate and nitrite in vegetables. Wageningen: Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation

    Google Scholar 

  45. Cuello C, Correa P, Haenszel W, Gordillo G, Brown C, Archer M and Tannenbaum S (1976) Gastric cancer in Colombia. I. Cancer risk and suspect environmental agents. J Natl Cancer Inst 57, 1015–1020

    Google Scholar 

  46. Descamps P (1972) Les nitrates dans les légumes de conserve: cas des épinards et des carottes. Centre Technique des Conserves de Produits Agricoles (CTCPA). Station Experimentale de Dury

  47. Dijkshoorn W (1969) The relation of growth to the chief ionic constituents of the plant. In: Rorison IH, ed. Ecological aspects of the mineral nutrition of plants, pp 201–213. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications

    Google Scholar 

  48. Dijkshoorn W and Wijk AL van (1967) The sulphur requirements of plants as evidenced by the sulphur-nitrogen ratio in the organic matter — a review of published data. Plant Soil 26, 129–157

    Google Scholar 

  49. Dressel J (1976) Abhängigkeit qualitätsbeeinflussender pflanzlicher N-haltiger Inhaltstoffe von der Düngungsintensität. Landwirtsch Forsch 33 II SH, 326–334

    Google Scholar 

  50. Dressel J and Jung J (1970) Der Einfluss der Düngung auf verschiedene Inhaltstoffe von Spinat. Ernaehr Umsch 17, 524–527

    Google Scholar 

  51. Eerola M, Varo P and Koivistoinen P (1974) Nitrate and nitrite in spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) as affected by application of different levels of nitrogen fertilizer, blanching, and storage after thawing of frozen product. Acta Agric Scand 24, 286–290

    Google Scholar 

  52. Egmond F van (1971) Inorganic cations and carboxylates in young sugarbeet plants. Proc 8th Colloq Int Potash Inst (Uppsala), pp 104–117

  53. Egmond, F van (1975) The ionic balance of the sugar-beet plant. Agric Res Rep 832. Wageningen: Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation

    Google Scholar 

  54. Egmond F van (1978) Critique- of “Absorption and utilization of ammonium nitrogen by plant”. Nitrogen nutritional aspects of the ionic balance of plants. In: Nielsen DR and MacDonald JG, eds. Nitrogen in the environment 2, pp 171–189. New York: Academic Press

    Google Scholar 

  55. Fraser P, Chilvers C, Beral V and Hill MJ (1980) Nitrate and human cancer: a review of the evidence. Int J Epidemiol 9, 3–11

    Google Scholar 

  56. Frota JNE and Tucker TC (1972) Temperature influence on ammonium and nitrate absorption by lettuce. Soil Sci Soc Am Proc 36, 97–100

    Google Scholar 

  57. Gasser JKR (1970) Nitrification inhibitors — their occurrence, production and effects of their use on crop yields and composition. Soils Fert 33, 547–554

    Google Scholar 

  58. Geleperin MD, Moses VJ and Fox G (1976) Nitrate in water supplies and cancer. Ill Med J 149, 251–253

    Google Scholar 

  59. Geyer B (1978) Untersuchungen zur Wirkung hoher Stickstoffgaben auf den Nitratgehalt von Freilandgemüse. Arch Gartenbau 26, 1–13

    Google Scholar 

  60. Grujić S and Kastori R (1974) Einfluss der verschiedenen Mineralstoffernährung auf den Nitrat- und Nitritgehalt im Spinat. Proc IV Int Congress Food Sci Technol (Madrid) 3, 272–277

    Google Scholar 

  61. Haenszel W, Kurihara M, Segi M and Lee RKC (1972) Stomach cancer among Japanese in Hawaii. J Natl Cancer Inst 49, 969–988

    Google Scholar 

  62. Haenszel W, Kurihara M, Locke FB, Shinuzu K and Segi M (1976) Stomach cancer in Japan. J Natl Cancer Inst 56, 265–274

    Google Scholar 

  63. Hansen H (1978) The influence of nitrogen fertilization on the chemical composition of vegetables. Qual Plant 28, 45–63

    Google Scholar 

  64. Harada M, Ishiwata H, Nakamura Y, Tanimura A and Ishidate M (1975) Changes of nitrite and nitrate concentrations in human saliva after ingestion of salted Chinese cabbage. J Food Hyg Soc Jpn 16, 11–18

    Google Scholar 

  65. Haynes RJ and Goh KM (1978) Ammonium and nitrate nutrition of plants. Biol Rev Camb Philo Soc 53, 465–510

    Google Scholar 

  66. Hewitt EJ (1975) Assimilatory nitrate-nitrite reduction. Annu Rev Plant Physiol 26, 73–100

    Google Scholar 

  67. Hiatt AJ (1967) Relationship of cell sap pH to organic acid change during ion intake. Plant Physiol (Bethesda) 42, 294–298

    Google Scholar 

  68. Hildebrandt (1976) Zur Problematik der Nitrosamine in der Pflanzenernährung. Dissertation Justus Liebig Universität Giessen

  69. Hill MJ, Hawksworth GM and Tattersall G (1973) Bacteria nitrosamines and cancer of the stomach. Br J Cancer 28, 562–567

    Google Scholar 

  70. Houba VJG, Egmond F van and Wittich EM (1971) Changes in production of organic nitrogen and carboxylates (C-A) in young sugar-beet plants grown in nutrient solutions of different nitrogen compositions. Neth J Agric Sci 19, 39–47

    Google Scholar 

  71. Huber DM and Watson RD (1974) Nitrogen form and plant disease. Annu Rev Phytopathol 12, 139–165

    Google Scholar 

  72. Huffaker RC and Rains DW (1978) Factors influencing nitrate acquisition by plants; assimilation and fate of reduced nitrogen. In: Nielsen DR and MacDonald JG, eds. Nitrogen in the environment 2, pp 1–43. New York: Academic Press

    Google Scholar 

  73. Hulewicz D and Mokrzecka E (1971) Ertragsabhängigkeit des Spinats und einiger seiner Wertbestimmenden Bestandteile von der Düngung. Z Pflanzenernaehr Bodenkd 130, 214–224

    Google Scholar 

  74. Ishiwata H, Boriboon P, Nakamura Y, Harada M, Tanimura A and Ishidate M (1975) Studies on in vivo formation of nitroso compounds. II. Changes of nitrite and nitrate concentration in human saliva after ingestion of vegetables or sodium nitrate. J Food Hyg Soc Jpn 16, 19–24

    Google Scholar 

  75. Jackson WA (1978) Critique- of “Factors influencing nitrate acquisition by plants: assimilation and fate of reduced nitrogen”. Nitrate acquisition and assimilation by higher plants: processes in the root system. In: Nielsen DR and MacDonald JG, eds. Nitrogen in the environment 2, pp 45–88. New York: Academic Press

    Google Scholar 

  76. Jacobson L and Ordin L (1954) Organic acid metabolism and ion absorption in roots. Plant Physiol (Bethesda) 29, 70–75

    Google Scholar 

  77. Jacquin F and Papadopoulos G (1977) Influence de la forme de fumure azotée sur l'accumulation des nitrates dans des plants d'épinards cultivés en vases de végétation. Bull Ec Nat Super Agron Ind Aliment 19, 101–104

    Google Scholar 

  78. Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA)(1974) Toxicological evaluation of certain food additives with a review of general principles and specifications. 17th Report JECFA, FAO Nutrition Meetings Report Series No 53; WHO Technical Report Series No 539

  79. Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA)(1976) Evaluation of certain food additives. 20th Report JECFA, WHO Technical Report Series No 599; FAO Food and Nutrition Series No 1

  80. Joint Iran-International Agency for Research on Cancer Study Group (1977) Oesophageal cancer studies in the Caspian Littoral of Iran: Results of population studies — a prodrome. J Natl Cancer Inst 59, 1127–1138

    Google Scholar 

  81. Jung J and Dressel J (1978) Umsetzungsvorgänge und Inhibierungsmöglichkeiten bei Boden- und Düngerstickstoff. Landwirtsch Forsch 34 II SH, 74–89

    Google Scholar 

  82. Jurkowska H (1971) Effect of dicyanodiamide on the content of nitrates and oxalic acid in spinach. Agrochimica 15, 445–453

    Google Scholar 

  83. Jurkowska H and Wojciechowicz T (1974) Investigations on the content of oxalic acids and nitrates in plants. Part II. Effect of dicyanodiamide as an inhibitor of nitrification on the accumulation of oxalic acid and nitrates in plants as depending on the nitrogen doses (in Polish). Acta Agrar Silvestria Ser Agrar 14/2, 15–24

    Google Scholar 

  84. Kerkhoff P and Slangen JHG (1980) Nitrificatie-remstoffen in land- en tuinbouw. Interne Mededeling no 54, Vakgroep Bodemkunde en Bemestingsleer, Landbouwhogeschool, Wageningen

    Google Scholar 

  85. Kick H and Massen GG (1973) Der Einfluss von Dicyandiamid und N-Serve in Verbindung mit Ammoniumsulfat als N-dünger auf die Nitrat-und Oxalsäuregehalte von Spinat (Spinacia oleracea). Z Pflanzenernaehr Bodenkd 135, 220–226

    Google Scholar 

  86. Kirkby EA (1969) Ion uptake and ionic balance in plants in relation to the form of nitrogen nutrition. In: Rorison IH, ed. Ecological aspects of the mineral nutrition of plants, pp 215–255. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications

    Google Scholar 

  87. Kirkby EA (1974) Recycling of potassium in plants considered in relation to uptake and organic acid accumulation. In: Wehrmann J, ed. Proc 7th Int Colloq Plant Anal Fert Probl (Hannover) 2, 557–568

    Google Scholar 

  88. Kirkby EA and Knight AH (1977) Influence of the level of nitrate nutrition on ion uptake and assimilation, organic acid accumulation, and cation-anion balance in whole tomato plants. Plant Physiol (Bethesda) 60, 349–353

    Google Scholar 

  89. Klett M (1968) Untersuchungen über Licht- und Schattenqualität in Relation zum Anbau und Test von Kieselpreparaten zur Qualitätshebung. Institut für biologischdynamische Forschung, Darmstadt

    Google Scholar 

  90. Knauer N (1970) Beeinflussung der Qualität von Spinat durch pflanzenbauliche Massnahmen. Ernaehr Umsch 17, 5–8

    Google Scholar 

  91. Knauer N and Simon C (1968) Uber den Einfluss der Stickstoffdüngung auf den Ertrag sowie Nitrat-, Mineralstoff- und Oxalsäuregehalt von Spinat. Z Acker Pflanzenb 128, 197–220

    Google Scholar 

  92. Kübler W and Simon C (1969) Nitrat-Nitritvergiftigungen im Säuglingsalter. Nutr Dieta 11, 111–119

    Google Scholar 

  93. Kuhlen H (1962) Der Nitratgehalt von Spinat im Abhängigkeit von der Stickstoffdüngung und andere ökologische Faktoren. Proc XVIth Hortic Congress 2, 216–222

    Google Scholar 

  94. Lambeth VN, Fields ML, Brown JR, Regan WS and Blevins DG (1969) Detinning by canned spinach as related to oxalic acid, nitrates and mineral composition. Food Technol 23, 840–842

    Google Scholar 

  95. Lee CY, Shallenberger RS, Downing DL, Stoewsand ES and Peck NH (1971) Nitrate and nitrite nitrogen in fresh, stored and processed table beets and spinach from different levels of field nitrogen fertilization. J Sci Food Agric 22, 90–92

    Google Scholar 

  96. Loggers G (1979) Nitraat, overdaad schaadt. Voeding (the Hague) 40, 431–433

    Google Scholar 

  97. Lorenz OA and Weir BL (1974) Nitrate accumulation in vegetables. In: White PL and Robbins D, eds. Environmental quality and food supply, pp 93–103. New York: Futura Publications

    Google Scholar 

  98. Lycklama JC (1963) The absorption of ammonium and nitrate by perennial rye-grass. Acta Bot Neerl 12, 361–423

    Google Scholar 

  99. Maercke D van (1973) Stikstofbemesting en het nitraatgehalte van spinazie. Meded Fac Landb Wetensch Rijks Univ Gent 38, 486–503

    Google Scholar 

  100. Maercke D van and Vereecke M (1976) Morfo-fysiologische en chemische studie van enkele spinazierassen. Landbouw Tijdschr 29, 1235–1254

    Google Scholar 

  101. Maga JA, Moore FD and Oshima N (1976) Yield, nitrate levels and sensory properties of spinach as influenced by organic and mineral nitrogen fertilizer levels. J Sci Food Agric 27, 109–114

    Google Scholar 

  102. Magee PN and Barnes JM (1967) Carcinogenic nitroso compounds. Adv Cancer Res 10, 163–246

    Google Scholar 

  103. Maynard DN and Barker AV (1971) Critical nitrate levels for leaf lettuce, radish, and spinach plants. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 2, 461–470

    Google Scholar 

  104. Maynard DN and Barker AV (1972) Nitrate content of vegetable crops. HortScience 7, 224–226

    Google Scholar 

  105. Maynard DN and Barker AV (1974) Nitrate accumulation in spinach as influenced by leaf type. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 99. 135–138

    Google Scholar 

  106. Maynard DN and Barker AV (1979) Regulation of nitrate accumulation in vegetables. Acta Hortic 93, 153–159

    Google Scholar 

  107. Maynard DN and Lorenz OA (1979) Controlled release fertilizers for horticultural crops. Hortic Rev 1, 79–140

    Google Scholar 

  108. Maynard DN, Barker AV, Minotti PL and Peck NH (1976) Nitrate accumulation in vegetables. Adv Agron 28, 71–118

    Google Scholar 

  109. Mehwald J (1973) Die Düngung bei Spinat im Frühjahrs- und Herbstanbau. Gemüse 9, 197–198

    Google Scholar 

  110. Mengel K and Kirkby EA (1978) Principles of plant nutrition. Bern: International Potash Institute

    Google Scholar 

  111. Merkel D (1975) Oxalatgehalt und Kationen-Anionen-Gleichgewicht von Spinatpflanzen in Abhängigkeit vom NO3: NH4-Verhältnis in der Nährlösung. Landwirtsch Forsch 28, 34–40

    Google Scholar 

  112. Meyers RJK and Paul EA (1968) Nitrate ion electrode method for soil nitrate nitrogen determination. Can J Soil Sci 48, 369–371

    Google Scholar 

  113. Mills HA, Barker AV and Maynard DN (1976) Effects of nitrapyrin on nitrate accumulation in spinach. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 101, 202–204

    Google Scholar 

  114. Minotti PL and Stankey DL (1973) Diurnal variation in the nitrate concentration of beet. HortScience 8, 33–34

    Google Scholar 

  115. Mirvish SS (1977) N-nitroso compounds: Their chemical and in vivo formation and possible importance as environmental carcinogens. J Toxicol Environ Health 2, 1267–1277

    Google Scholar 

  116. Mol HJ (1979) Preventie van schadelijke stoffen in tuinbouwprodukten. Bedrijfsontwikkeling 10, 948–954

    Google Scholar 

  117. Moore FD (1973) N-serve nutrient stabilizer: A nitrogen management tool for leafy vegetables. Down to Earth 28, 4–7

    Google Scholar 

  118. Moore FD, Riggert CE and Holbrook TB (1977) Effect of fertilizer nitrogen nitrification suppression on spinach in alkaline soil. HortScience 12, 412

    Google Scholar 

  119. Nicolaisen W and Zimmermann H (1968) Der Einfluss der Stickstoffdüngung auf den Nitratgehalt von Spinat unter wechselnden klimatischen Bedingungen. Gartenbauwissenschaft 33, 353–380

    Google Scholar 

  120. Novozamsky I, Eck R van, Schouwenburg JCh van and Walinga I (1974) Total nitrogen determination in plant material by means of the indophenolblue method. Neth J Agric Sci 22, 3–5

    Google Scholar 

  121. Nurzynski J (1976) Effect of the chloride and sulphate form of potassium on the quantitative and qualitative aspects of the yields of some vegetable crops on garden peat (in Polish). Biul Warzywniczy 19, 105–118

    Google Scholar 

  122. Øien A and Selmer-Olsen AR (1969) Nitrate determination in soil extracts with the nitrate electrode. Analyst 94, 888–894

    Google Scholar 

  123. Olday FC, Barker AV and Maynard DN (1976) A physiological basis for different patterns of nitrate accumulation in two spinach cultivars. J Am Soc Hort Sci 101, 217–219

    Google Scholar 

  124. Pavlek P, Durman P, Heneberg R and Horgas D (1974) Effect of some climatic factors upon the yield and dry matter and nitrate content of the studied spinach varieties (in Polish). Poljopr Znan Smotra 33, 133–141

    Google Scholar 

  125. Pflüger R and Wiedemann R (1977) Der Einfluss monovalenter Kationen auf die Nitratreduktion von Spinacia oleracea L. Z Pflanzenphysiol 85, 125–133

    Google Scholar 

  126. Prasad R, Rajale GB and Lakhdive BA (1971) Nitrification retarders and slowrelease nitrogen fertilizers. Adv Agron 23, 337–383

    Google Scholar 

  127. Preussmann R (1981) Nitrat in der Nahrung — ein Gesundheitsrisiko? In: Vorträge der Informationstagung ‘Nitrat in Gemüsebau und Landwirtschaft’, 23. November 1981, Gottlieb Duttweiler-Institut, Rüschlikon/Zürich, pp 17–35

    Google Scholar 

  128. Prummel J (1971) Fosfaat- en kalibemesting van bladspinazie en stamslabonen op landbouwgronden. Bedrijfsontwikkeling 2 (editie Tuinbouw), 49–54

    Google Scholar 

  129. Rao KP and Rains DW (1976) Nitrate absorption by barley. I. Kinetics and energetics. Plant Physiol (Bethesda) 57, 55–58

    Google Scholar 

  130. Raven JA and Smith FA (1976) Nitrogen assimilation and transport in vascular land plants in relation to intracellular pH regulation. New Phytol 76, 415–431

    Google Scholar 

  131. Regan WS, Lambeth VN, Brown JR and Blevins DG (1968) Fertilization interrelationships in yield, nitrate and oxalic acid content of spinach. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 93, 485–492

    Google Scholar 

  132. Roorda van Eysinga JPNL and Meijs MQ van der (1980-1) Nitraatgehalte in glassla geoogst gedurende een etmaal. Intern verslag no 27. Proefstation voor Tuinbouw onder Glas te Naaldwijk, juni 1980

  133. Roorda van Eysinga JPNL and Meijs MQ van der (1980-2) Het telen van spinazie en radijs op voedingsoplossingen met als doel het nitraatgehalte in gewas te verlagen. Intern verslag no 53. Proefstation voor Tuinbouw onder Glas te Naaldwijk, november 1980

  134. Ruddell WSJ, Bone ES, Hill MJ, Blendis LM and Walters CL (1976) Gastric juice nitrate. A risk factor for cancer in the hypochlorhydric stomach. Lancet ii, 1037–1039

    Google Scholar 

  135. Rudert BD and Locascio SJ (1979) Differential mobility of nitrapyrin and ammonium in a sandy soil and its effect on nitrapyrin efficiency. Agron J 71, 487–490

    Google Scholar 

  136. Scharpf HC (1977) Der Mineralstickstoffgehalt des Bodens als Massstab für den Stickstoffdüngerbedarf. Dissertation Universität Hannover

  137. Schenk M and Wehrmann J (1979) The influence of ammonia in nutrient solution on growth and metabolism of cucumber plants. Plant Soil 52, 403–414

    Google Scholar 

  138. Schmalfuss K and Reinicke I (1960) Uber die Wirkung gestaffelter K-gaben als KCl und K2SO4 auf Ertrag und Gehalt an Wasser, N-Verbindungen, K-, Cl- und S-Fraktionen von Spinatpflanzen im Gefässversuch. Z Pflanzenernaehr Dueng Bodenkd 91, 21–29

    Google Scholar 

  139. Schrader LE (1978) Critique-of “Factors influencing nitrate acquisition by plants: assimilation and fate of reduced nitrogen”. Uptake, accumulation, assimilation and transport of nitrogen in higher plants. In: Nielsen DR and MacDonald JG, eds. Nitrogen in the environment 2, pp 101–141. New York: Academic Press

    Google Scholar 

  140. Schudel P, Eichenberger M, Augstburger F, Klay R and Vogtmann H (1979) Uber den Einfluss von Kompost- und NPK-Düngung auf Ertrag, Vitamin-C- und Nitratgehalt von Spinat und Schnittmangold. Schweiz landwirtsch Forsch 18, 337–349

    Google Scholar 

  141. Schuffelen AC, Lehr JJ and Rosanow M (1952) The technique of pot experiments. Trans Int Soc Soil Sci (Comm II and IV) 2, 263–268

    Google Scholar 

  142. Schuphan W (1965) Ertragsbildung und Erzeugung wertgebender Inhalts-und Schadstoffe in Abhängigkeit von der N- und P-Düngung. Landwirtsch Forsch 19 SH, 195–205

    Google Scholar 

  143. Schuphan W (1974) The significance of nitrates in food and potable waters. Qual Plant Plant Foods Hum Nutr 24, 19–35

    Google Scholar 

  144. Schuphan W and Hentschel H (1970) Hohe Stickstoffgaben beim Spinat und ihre Folgen. Ernaehr Umsch 17, 197–200

    Google Scholar 

  145. Schuphan W, Bengtsson B, Bosund I and Hylmö B (1967) Nitrate accumulation in spinach. Qual Plant Plant Foods Hum Nutr 14, 317–330

    Google Scholar 

  146. Schütt I (1977) Zum Nitratgehalt in Spinat. Lebensm Ind 24, 318–320

    Google Scholar 

  147. Schwerdtfeger E (1975) Umweltbedingte Impulse als Enzyminduktoren in ihrer Auswirkung auf Pflanzeninhaltstoffe. Qual Plant Plant Foods Hum Nutr 24, 263–280

    Google Scholar 

  148. Siegel O and Vogt G (1974) Uber die Bildung verschiedener Stickstoffverbindungen im Spinat (Spinacia oleracea) in Abhängigkeit van Art und Menge des gebotenen Stockstoffs. Landwirtsch Forsch 27, 281–286

    Google Scholar 

  149. Siegel O and Vogt G (1975-1) Uber den Einfluss langsam fliessender Stickstoffquellen auf den Aufbau der Stickstoffverbindungen in Spinat und Gerste. Landwirtsch Forsch 28, 235–241

    Google Scholar 

  150. Siegel O and Vogt G (1975-2) Uber den Einfluss eines Nitrifikationsinhibitors auf die Stickstoffverbindungen des Spinats. Landwirtsch Forsch 28, 242–248

    Google Scholar 

  151. Simon C (1970) Die alimentäre Methämoglobinämie im Säuglingsalter. Ernaehr Umsch 17, 3–5

    Google Scholar 

  152. Singh B, Vadhwa OP, Wu MT and Salunkhe DK (1972) Effects of foliar application of S-triazines on protein, amino acids, carbohydrates and mineral composition of pea and sweet corn seeds, bush bean pods and spinach leaves. J Agric Food Chem 20, 1256–1259

    Google Scholar 

  153. Sissingh HA (1971) Analytical technique of the Pw method, used for the assessment of the phosphate status of arable soils in the Netherlands. Plant Soil 34, 483–486

    Google Scholar 

  154. Slangen JHG and Hoogendijk AW (1970) Voorschriften voor chemische analyse van gewasmonsters. Afdeling Landbouwscheikunde Landbouwhogeschool Wageningen

  155. Sommer K and Mertz M (1974) Wachstum, Ertrag und Mineralstoffaufnahme von Pflanzen beeinflusst durch Ammonium oder Nitrat. Landwirtsch Forsch 27, 8–30

    Google Scholar 

  156. Spiegelhalder B, Eisenbrand G and Preussmann R (1976) Influence of dietary nitrate on nitrite content of human saliva: possible relevance to in vivo formation of N-nitroso compounds. Food Cosmet Toxicol 14, 545–548

    Google Scholar 

  157. Srivastava HS (1980) Regulation of nitrate reductase activity in higher plants. Phytochemistry 19, 725–733

    Google Scholar 

  158. Stephany RW and Schuller PL (1978) The intake of nitrate, nitrite and volatile N-nitrosamines and on the occurrence of volatile N-nitrosamines in human urine and veal calves. In: Walker EA, Castegnaro M, Griciute L and Lyle RE, eds. Environmental aspects of N-nitroso compounds. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC Scientific Publications no 19), pp 443–460

    Google Scholar 

  159. Stephany RW and Schuller PL (1980) Daily dietary intakes of nitrate, nitrite and volatile N-nitrosamines in the Netherlands using the duplicate portion sampling technique. Oncology 37, 203–210

    Google Scholar 

  160. Tannenbaum SR (1979) Relative risk assessment of various sources of nitrite. Proc Am Meat Inst Found 1979, 67–73

    Google Scholar 

  161. Tannenbaum SR, Weisman M and Fett D (1976) The effect of nitrate intake on nitrite formation in human saliva. Food Cosmet Toxicol 14, 549–552

    Google Scholar 

  162. Tannenbaum SR, Fett D, Young VR, Land PD and Bruce WR (1978) Nitrite and nitrate are formed by endogenous synthesis in the human intestine. Science 200, 1487–1489

    Google Scholar 

  163. Tannenbaum SR, Moran D, Rand W, Cuello C and Correa P (1979) Gastric cancer in Colombia IV. Nitrite and other ions in gastric contents of residents from a high-risk region. J Natl Cancer Inst 62, 9–12

    Google Scholar 

  164. Terman GL and Allen SE (1978) Crop yield-nitrate-N, total N, and total K relationships: leafy vegetables. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 9, 813–825

    Google Scholar 

  165. Terman GL, Noggle JC and Hunt CM (1976) Nitrate-N and total N concentration relationships in several plant species. Agron J 68, 556–560

    Google Scholar 

  166. Titulaer HHH (1980) Het stikstofbemestingsadvies voor spinazie. Toetsing van het voorlopig stikstofbemestingsadvies voor spinazie in de praktijk met het doel het nitraatgehalte van spinazie te verlagen. Lelystad, oktober 1980. See also: Jaarverslag 1980, Proefstation voor de Akkerbouw en de Groenteteelt in de Vollegrond te Lelystad, pp 61–63. Publikatie nr 15, september 1981

  167. Tremp E (1981) Der Beitrag der einzelnen Nahrungsmittel zur täglichen Nitrataufnahme des Menschen. In: Vorträge der Informationstagung ‘Nitrat in Gemüsebau und Landwirtschaft’, 23. November 1981, Gottlieb Duttweiler-Institut, Rüschlikon/Zürich, pp 37–47

    Google Scholar 

  168. Tronicková E and Vit V (1970) The effect of fertilizers on the nitrate content in several varieties of spinach. I. Ved Pr Vyzk Ustavu Rostl Vyroby v Praze-Ruzyni 16, 119–126

    Google Scholar 

  169. Tronicková E and Vit V (1972) The effect of fertilizers on the nitrate content in several varieties of spinach. II. Winter spinach. Ved Pr Vyzk Ustavu Rostl Vyroby v Praze-Ruzyni 17, 273–280

    Google Scholar 

  170. Tychsen K (1976) Irradiance and nitrogen metabolism in spinach. Acta Agric Scand 26, 189–195

    Google Scholar 

  171. Ulrich A (1941) Metabolism of non-volatile organic acids in excised barley roots as related to cation-anion balance during salt accumulation. Am J Bot 28, 526–537

    Google Scholar 

  172. Ulrich A (1942) Metabolism of organic acids in excised barley roots as influenced by temperature, oxygen tension and salt concentration. Am J Bot 29, 220–227

    Google Scholar 

  173. Venter F (1978) Untersuchungen über den Nitratgehalt in Gemüse. Stickstoff 12, 31–38

    Google Scholar 

  174. Walker R (1975) Naturally occurring nitrate/nitrite in foods. J Sci Food Agric 26, 1735–1742

    Google Scholar 

  175. Wedler A (1979) Untersuchungen über Nitratgehalte in einigen ausgewählten Gemüsearten. Landwirtsch Forsch 36 SH, 128–137

    Google Scholar 

  176. Westvlaamse proeftuin voor industriële groenten (1978) Verslag over de proeven uitgevoerd in 1976 en 1977. Onderzoek- en Voorlichtingscentrum voor Land- en Tuinbouw, Beitem-Roeselaere

  177. White JW (1975) Relative significance of dietary sources of nitrate and nitrite. J Agric Food Chem 23, 886–891 (correction in: J Agric Food Chem 25, 202 (1976))

    Google Scholar 

  178. Wit CT de, Dijkshoorn W and Noggle JC (1963) Ionic balance and growth of plants. Versl Landbouwk Onderz 69-15

  179. Witte H (1967) Stickstoffgehalt des Spinates in der Praxis des Feldgemüsebaus. Mitt Dtsch Landwirtsch Ges 82, 1658–1660

    Google Scholar 

  180. Witte H (1970) Nitratgehalt des Spinates - zwei Jahre systematische Rohware-Untersuchungen. Ind Obst Gemüseverw 55, 7–11

    Google Scholar 

  181. World Health Organization (WHO)(1970) European standards for drinking water, 2nd Edn. Geneva, WHO

    Google Scholar 

  182. Wright M and Davison KL (1964) Nitrate accumulation in crops and nitrate poisoning of animals. Adv Agron 16, 197–247

    Google Scholar 

  183. Yem EW and Folkes BF (1954) The regulation of respiration during the assimilation of nitrogen in Torulopsis utilis. Biochem J 57, 495–508

    Google Scholar 

  184. Zaldivar R (1977) Nitrate fertilizers as environmental pollutants. Positive correlation between nitrates (NaNO3 and KNO3) used per unit area and stomach cancer mortality rates. Experientia 33, 264–265

    Google Scholar 

  185. Zaldivar R and Wetterstrand WH (1975) Further evidence of a positive correlation between exposure to nitrate fertilizers (NaNO3 and KNO3) and gastric cancer death rates: Nitrites and nitrosamines. Experientia 31, 1354–1355

    Google Scholar 

  186. Zimmermann H (1966) The influence of fertilization on the quality of spinach at various light intensities. Acta Hortic 4, 89–95

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. T. Breimer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Breimer, T. Environmental factors and cultural measures affecting the nitrate content in spinach. Fertilizer Research 3, 191–292 (1982). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01063766

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01063766

Keywords

Search

Navigation