Abstract
A one-dimensional coupled climate and chemistry model has been developed to estimate past and possible future changes in atmospheric temperatures and chemical composition due to human activities. The model takes into account heat flux into the oceans and uses a new tropospheric temperature lapse rate formulation. As found in other studies, we estimate that the combined “greenhouse effect” of CH4, O3, CF2Cl2, CFCl3 and N2O in the future will be about as large as that of CO2. Our model calculates an increase in average global surface temperatures by about 0.6°C since the start of the industrial era and predicts for A.D. 2050 a twice as large additional rise. Substantial depletions of ozone in the upper stratosphere by between 25% and 55% are calculated, depending on scenario. Accompanying temperature changes are between 15°C and 25°C. Bromine compounds are found to be important, if no rigid international regulations on CFC emissions are effective. Our model may, however, concivably underestimate possible effects of CFCl3, CF2Cl2, C2F3Cl3 and other CFC and organic bromine emissions on lower stratospheric ozone, because it can not simulate the rapid breakdown of ozone which is now being observed worldwide. An uncertainty study regarding the photochemistry of stratospheric ozone, especially in the region below about 25 km, is included. We propose a reaction, involving excited molecular oxygen formation from ozone photolysis, as a possible solution to the problem of ozone concentrations calculated to be too low above 45 km. We also estimate that tropospheric ozone concentrations have grown strongly in the northern hemisphere since pre-industrial times and that further large increases may take place, especially if global emissions of NOx from fossil fuel and biomass burning were to continue to increase. Growing NOx emissions from aircraft may play an important role in ozone concentrations in the upper troposphere and low stratosphere.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ackerman M (1971) Ultraviolet solar radiation related to mesospheric processes. In: Fiocco G (ed) Mesospheric models and related experiments. Reidel, Dordrecht, pp 149–159.
Allen M, Frederick JE (1982) Effective photodissociation cross sections for molecular oxygen and nitric oxide in the Schumann Runge bands. J Atmos Sci 39:2066–2075
Andreae MO, Browell EV, Garstang MA, Gregory GL, Harriss RC, Hill GF, Jacob DJ, Pereira MC, Sachse GW, Setzer AW, Silva Dias PL, Talbot RW, Torres AL, Wofsy SC (1987) Biomass burning emissions and sssociated haze layers over Amazonia, J. Geophys Res (in press)
Bates DR, Nicolet M (1950) The photochemistry of atmospheric water vapor. J Geophys Res 55:301–327
Bingemer H, Crutzen PJ (1987) The production of methane from solid wastes. J Geophys Res 92:2181–2187
Bowman KP (1986) Interannual variability of total ozone during the breakdown of the Antarctic circumpolar vortex. Geophys Res Lett 13:1193–1196
Brewer AW (1949) Evidence for a world circulation provided by measurement of helium and water vapour distribution in the stratosphere. Quart J Roy Met Soc 75:351–363.
Brühl C (1987) An efficient model for changes of global climate and composition of the atmosphere due to human activities (in German). Dissertation, University of Mainz
Burrows JP (1984) Kinetics of the reaction of OH with ClO. J Chem Soc Faraday Trans 2, 957–971
Callis LB, Natarajan M (1986) Ozone and nitrogen dioxide changes in the stratosphere during 1979–84. Nature 323:772–777
Callis LB, Natarajan M, Boughner RE (1983) On the relationship between the greenhouse effect, atmospheric photochemistry, and species distribution. J. Geophys Res 88:1401–1426
Chameides WL, Stedman DH, Dickerson RR, Rusch DW, Cicerone RJ (1977) NOx production in lightning. J Atmos Sci 34:143–149
Chubachi S (1985) A special ozone observation at Syowa station, Antarctica from February 1982 to January 1983. In: Zerefos CS, Ghazi A (eds) Atmospheric ozone. Reidel, Dordrecht, pp 285–289
Clarke JI (1972) Population geography. Pergamon Press, Oxford
Clark WC (ed) (1982) Carbon dioxide review 1982. Clarendon Press, Oxford
Craig H, Chou CC (1982) Methane: The record in polar ice cores. Geophys Res Lett 9:1221–1224
Crutzen PJ (1970) The influence of nitrogen oxides on the atmospheric ozone content. Quart J Roy Met Soc 96:320–325
Crutzen PJ (1971) Ozone production rates in an oxygen-hydrogen-nitrogen oxide atmosphere. J Geophys Res 76:7311–7327
Crutzen PJ (1973) A discussion of the chemistry of some monor constitutents in the stratosphere and troposphere. Pure Appl Geophys 106-108:1385–1399
Crutzen PJ (1979) The role of NO and NO2 in the chemistry of the troposphere and stratosphere. Ann Rev Earth Planet Sci 7:443–472
Crutzen PJ (1987a) The role of the tropics in atmospheric chemistry. In: Dickinson R (ed): Geophysiology of Amazonia, Wiley, New York, pp 107–130
Crutzen PJ (1987b) Tropospheric ozone: An overview. In: I. S. A. Isaksen S. A. Penkett (eds) Proceedings NATO Advanced Study Institute on Tropospheric Ozone. Reidel Dordrecht (in press)
Crutzen PJ, Arnold F (1986) Nitric acid cloud formation in the cold Antarctic stratosphere: a major cause for the springtime ‘ozone hole’. Nature 324:651–655
Crutzen PJ, Gidel LT (1983) A two-dimensional model of the atmosphere. 2: The tropospheric budgets of the anthropogenic chlorocarbons, CO, CH4, CH3Cl and the effect of various NOx sources on tropospheric ozone. J Geophys Res 88:6641–6661
Crutzen PJ, Schmailzl U (1983) Chemical budgets of the stratosphere. Planet Space Sci 31:1009–1032
Crutzen PJ, Isaksen ISA, McAfee JR (1978) The impact of the chlorocarbon industry on the ozone layer. J Geophys Res 83:345–363
Crutzen PJ, Delany AC, Greenberg J, Haagenson P, Heidt L, Lueb R, Pollock W, Seiler W, Wartburg A, Zimmerman P (1985) Tropospheric chemical composition measurements in Brazil during dry season. J Atmos Chem 2:233–256
Crutzen PJ, Aselmann I, Seiler W (1986) Methane production by domestic animals, wild ruminants, other herbivorous fauna, and humans. Tellus 38B:271–284
Cunnold DM, Prinn RG, Rasmussen RA, Simmonds PG, Alyea FN, Cardelino CA, Crawford AJ (1983a) The Atmospheric Lifetime Experiment — 4. Results for CF2Cl2 based on three years data. J Geophys Res 88:8401–8414
Cunnold DM, Prinn RG, Rasmussen RA, Simmonds PG, Alyea FN, Cardelino CA, Crawford AJ, Fraser PJ, Rosen RD (1983b) The Atmospheric Lifetime Experiment — 3. Lifetime methodology and application to three years of CFCl3 data. J Geophys Res 88:8379–8400.
Davenport JE (1980). Parameters for ozone photolysis as a function of temperature at 280–380 nm. Report FAA-EE-80-44, US Department of Transportation. Washington D.C. (available from NTIS)
DeMore WB, Potapoff M (1972) Temperature and pressure dependence of CO2 extinction coefficients J Geophys Res 77:6291–6293
DeMore WB, Watson RT, Golden DM, Hampson RF, Kurylo MJ, Howard CJ, Molina MJ, Ravishankara AR (1982) Chemical kinetics and photochemical data for use in stratospheric modeling. Jet Prop Lab Publ 82-57, evaluation no.5, NASA, Pasadena, CA
DeMore WB, Margitan JJ, Molina MJ, Watson RT, Golden DM, Hampson RF, Kurylo MJ, Howard CJ, Ravishankara AR (1985) Chemical kinetics and photochemical data for use in stratospheric modeling. Jet Prop Lab Publ 85-37, evaluationno.7, NASA, Pasadena, CA
Dickinson RE (1973) Method of parameterization for infrared cooling between altitudes of 30 and 70 km. J Geophys Res 78:4451–4457
Donner L, Ramanathan V (1980) Methane and nitrous oxide: their effects on the terrestrial climate. J Atmos Sci 37:119–124
Ember LR, Layman PL, Lepkowski W, Zurer PS (1986) The changing atmosphere. Chemical & Engineering News 65 (No. 47):14–64
Fabian P, Borchers R, Penkett SA, Prosser NJD (1981) Halocarbons in the stratosphere. Nature 294:733–735
Farman JC, Gardiner BG, Shanklin JD (1985) Large losses of total ozone in Antarctica reveal seasonal CIOx/NOx interaction. Nature 315:207–210
Fishman J, Solomon S, Crutzen PJ (1979). Observational and theoretical evidence in support of a significant in-situ photochemical source of tropospheric ozone. Tellus 31:432–446.
Frederick JE, Cicerone RJ (1985) Dissociation of metastable O2 as a potential source of atmospheric odd oxygen. J Geophys Res 91:10733–10738
Froidevaux L, Allen M, Yung YL (1985) A critical analysis of ClO and O3 in the mid-latitude stratosphere. J Geophys Res 90:12999–13029
Galbally IE, Roy CR (1978) Loss of fixed nitrogen from soils by nitric oxide exhalation. Nature 275:734–735
Gidel LT, Crutzen PJ, Fishman J (1983) A two-dimensional photochemical model of the atmosphere. I: Chlorocarbon emissions and their effect on stratospheric ozone. J Geophys Res 88:6622–6640
Hammitt JK, Wolf KA, Camm F, Mooz WE, Quinn TH, Bamezai A (1986) Product uses and market trends for potential ozone-depleting substances, 1985–2000. Papet R3386-EPA, RAND corporation, Santa Monica, CA
Hampson J (1965) Chemiluminescent emissions observed in the stratosphere and mesosphere. In: Les problèmes météorologiques de la stratosphère et de la mésosphère, CNES, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris
Hayman GD, Davies JM, Cox RA (1986) Kinetics of the reaction ClO+ClO→products and its potential relevance to Antarctic ozone. Geophys Res Lett 13:1347–1350
Hills, AJ, Howard CJ (1984) Rate coefficient temperature dependence on branching ratio for the OH+ClO reaction. J Chem Phys 81:4458–4465.
Hinkelmann K (1971) Thermodyamik der Atmosphäre. Institute for Meteorology, University of Mainz
Hubrich C, Stuhl F (1980) The ultraviolet absorption of some halogenated methanes and ethanes of atmospheric interest. J Photochem 12:93–107
Hummel JR, Kuhn WR (1981) An atmospheric radiative-convective model with interactive water vapor transport and cloud development. Tellus 33:372–381
Johnson K (1987) Agreement nears on protection of the Earth's ozone layer. Nature 328:7
Jones RL, Pyle JA, Harris JE, Zavody, AM, Russell III JM Gille JC (1986a) The water vapour budget of the stratosphere studied using LIMS and SAMA satellite data. Quart J Roy Met Soc 112:1127–1143
Jones PD, Wigley TML, Wright PB (1986b) Global temperature variations between 1861 and 1984. Nature 322:430–434.
Kagann RH, Elkins JW, Sams RL (1983) Absolute band strength of halocarbons F-11 and F-12 in the 8 to 16 μm region. J Geophys Res 88:1427–1432
Khalil MAK, Rasmussen RA (1984) Carbon monoxide in the earth's atmosphere: increasing trend. Science 224:54–56
Khalil MAK, Rasmussen RA (1985) Causes of increasing atmospheric methane: depletion of hydroxyl radicals and the rise of emissions. Atmos Environment 19:397–407
Kiehl JT (1985) Searching for the radiative signal of increasing carbon dioxide and other trace gases. In: McCracken MC, Luther FM (eds) Detecting the climatic effects of increasing carbon dioxide. Report DOE/ER-0235, US Department of Energy, Washington, D.C., pp. 13–28 (available from NTIS)
Kiehl JT, Ramanathan V (1983) CO2 radiative parameterization used in climate models: comparisons with narrow band models and with laboratory data. J Geophys Res 88:5191–5202
Kiehl JT, Brühl C, Yamanouchi T (1985) A parameterization for absorption due to the near infrared bands of CO2. Tellus 37B:189–196
Lal S, Borchers R, Fabian P, Krüger BC (1985) Increasing abundance of CBrClF2 in the atmosphere. Nature 316:135–136
Levy A (1907) Analyse de l'air atmosphérique ozone. Annales d'Observatoire Municipal de Montsouris 8:289–291
Levy II. H (1971) Normal atmosphere: Large radical and formaldehyde concentrations predicted. Science 173:141–143
Levy II. H (1972) Photochemistry of the lower troposphere. Planet Space Sci 20:919–935
Liu SC, Donahue TM, Cicerone RJ, Chameides WL (1976) Effect of water vapor on the destruction of ozone in the stratosphere perturbed by Clx or NOx pollutants. J Geophys Res 81:3111–3118
Logan JA (1983) Nitrogen oxides in the troposphere: global and regional budgets. J Geophys Res 88:10785–10807
Logan JA (1985) Tropospheric ozone: seasonal behavior, trends and anthropogenic influence. J Geophys Res 90:10463–10482
Logan JA, Prather MJ, Wofsy SC, McElroy MB (1978) Atmospheric chemistry: response to human influence. Phil Trans Roy Soc London 290A:187–234
Logan JA, Prather MJ, Wofsy SC, McElroy MB (1981) Tropospheric chemistry: a global perspective. J Geophys Res 86:7210–7254
Lovelock JE (1975) Natural halocarbons in the air and in the sea. Nature 256:193–194
Luther FM, Gelinas RJ (1976) Effect of molecular multiple scattering and surface albedo on atmospheric photodissociation rates. J Geophys Res 81:1125–1132
Magnotta F, Johnston HS (1980) Photodissociation quantum yields for the NO3 free radical. Geophys Res Lett 7:769–772
Manabe S, Wetherald RT (1967) Thermal equilibrium of the atmosphere with a given distribution of relative humidity. J Atmos Sci 24:241–259
Mankin WG, Coffey MT (1984) Increased stratospheric hydrogen chloride in the El Chichon cloud. Science 226:170–172
McClatchey RA, Benedict WS, Clough SA, Burch DE, Calfee RF, Fox K, Rothman LS, Goring JS (1973) AFCRL atmospheric absorption line compilation. AFCRL-TR-73-0096, Air Force Cambridge Res. Lab., Bedford, Massachusetts (available from NTIS)
McElroy MB, Salawitch RJ, Wofsy SC, Logan JA (1986) Reductions of Antarctic ozone due to synergistic interactions of chlorine and bromine. Nature 321:759–762
McPeters RD, Bass AM (1982) Anomalous atmospheric spectral features between 300 and 310 nm interpreted in light of new ozone absorption coefficient measurements. Geophys Res Lett 9:227–230
Mitchell JFB (1986) Simulation of climate change due to increased CO2. Proceedings. ASI on physically-based modelling and simulation of climate and climatic change, Erice, May 1986. Reidel, Dordrecht (in press)
Molina LT, Molina MJ (1987) Ultraviolet spectrum of HOCI. J Phys Chem 82:2410–2414
Molina LT, Molina MJ (1987) Production of Cl2O2 from the self-reaction of the ClO radical. J Phys Chem 91:433–436
Molina MJ, Rowland FS (1974) Stratospheric sink for chlorofluoro-methane: chlorine atom catalysed destruction of ozone. Nature 249:810–812
Molina LT, Molina MJ, Rowland FS (1982) Ultraviolet absorption cross sections of several brominated methanes and ethanes of atmospheric interest. J Phys Chem 86:2672–2676
Moorgat G, Kuszus E (1978) Mathematical expression for the O(1D) quantum yields from the O3 photolysis as a function of temperature (230–320 nm). Geophys Res Lett 5:191–194
National Research Council (NRC) (1982) Causes and effects of stratospheric ozone reducton: an update. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 339 pages
Neftel A, Moor E, Oeschger H, Stauffer B (1985) Evidence from polar ice cores for the increase in atmospheric CO2 in the past two centuries. Nature 315:45–47
Nicolet M (1964) Reactions and photochemistry of atoms and molecules. I. Introduction to chemical aeronomy. Disc Furaday Soc 37:7–20
Nicolet M, Peetermans W (1972) The production of nitric oxide in the stratosphere by oxidation of nitrous oxide. Ann Géophys 28:751–762
Oort AH, Rasmusson EM (1971) Atmospheric circulation statistics. NOAA profes. paper 5, US Department of Commerce. Rockville, MD 323 pages (available at US Government Printing Office, Washington D.C.)
Owens AJ, Hales CH, Filkin DL, Miller C, Steed JM, Jesson JP (1985) A coupled one-dimensional radiative-convective, chemistry-transport model of the atmosphere. 1. Model structure and steady-state perturbation calculations. J Geophys Res 90:2283–2312
Pearman GI, Etheridge D, deSilva F, Fraser PJ (1986) Evidence of changing concentrations of atmospheric CO2, N2O and CH4 from air bubbles in Antarctic ice. Nature 320:248–250
Penkett SA, Jones BMR, Rycroft MJ, Simmons DA (1985) An interhemispheric comparison of the concentrations of bromine compounds in the atmosphere. Nature 318:550–553
Poulet G, Laverdet, G, Le Bras G (1986) Rate constant and branching ratio for the reaction of OH and ClO. J Phys Chem 90:159–165
Prinn RG, Rasmussen RA, Simmonds PG, Alyea FN, Cunnold DM, Lane BC, Cardelino CA, Crawford AJ (1983) The Atmospheric Lifetime Experiment — 5. Results for CH3CCl3 based on three years data. J Geophys Res 88:8415–8426
Quinn TH, Wolf KA, Mooz WE, Hammitt JK, Chesnut TW, Sarma S (1986) Projected use, emissions, and banks of potential ozone-depleting substances. Paper N-2282-EPA, RAND corporation, Santa Monica, CA
Ramanathan V (1976) Radiative transfer within the earth's troposphere and stratosphere: a simplified radiative convective model. J Atmos Sci 3:1330–1346
Ramanathan V, Coakley Jr JA (1978) Climate modeling through radiative-convective models. Rev Geophys Space Phys 16:465–489
Ramanathan V, Dickinson RE (1979) The role of stratospheric ozone in the zonal and seasonal radiative energy balance of the earth-troposphere system. J Atmos Sci 36:1084–1104
Ramanathan V, Cicerone RJ, Singh HB, Kiehl JT (1985) Trace gas trends and their potential role in climate change. J Geophys Res 90:5547–5566
Ramanathan V, Callis L, Cess R, Singh HB, Isaksen I, Kuhn W, Lacis A, Luther F, Mahlman J, Reck R, Schlesinger M (1987) Climate-chemical interactions and effects of changing atmospheric trace gases. Rev Geophys 25:1441–1482
Rasmussen RA, Khalil MAK (1981) Increase in the concentration of atmospheric methane. Atmos Environment 15:883–886
Rasmussen RA, Khalil MAK (1984) Atmospheric methane in the recent and ancient atmospheres: concentrations, trends and interhemispheric gradient. J Geophys Res 89:11599–11605
Raynaud D, Barnola JM (1985) An Antarctic ice core reveals atmospheric CO2 variations over the past few centures. Nature 315:309–311.
Reich PB, Amundson RG (1985) Ambient levels of ozone reduce net photosynthesis in tree and crop species. Science 230:566–570
Reid GC, Gags KS (1981) On the annual variation in height of the tropical tropopause. J Atmos Sci 38:1928–1938
Rennick MA (1977) The parameterization of tropospheric lapse rates in terms of surface temperature. J Atmos Sci 34:854–862
Rinsland CP, Levine JS (1985) Free tropospheric carbon monoxide concentrations in 1950 and 1951 deduced from infrared total column amount measurements. Nature 318:250–254
Rinsland CP, Levine JS, Miles T (1985) Concentration of methane in the troposphere deduced from 1951 infrared solar spectra. Nature 318:245–249
Roberts RE, Selby JEA, Biberman LM (1976) Infrared continuum absorption by atmospheric water vapor in the 8–12 μm window. Appl Optics 15:2085–2090
Rodgers CD, Walshaw CD (1966) The computation of infrared cooling rate in planetary atmospheres. Quart J Roy Met Soc 92:67–92
Rossi MJ, Malhotra R, Golden DM (1987) Heterogeneous chemical reaction of chlorine nitrate and water on sulfuric-acid surfaces at room temperature. Geophys Res Lett 14:127–130
Rothman LS, Gamache RR, Barbe A, Goldman A, Gillis JR, Brown LR, Toth RA, Flaud JM, Camy-Peyret C (1983) AFGL atmospheric absorption line parameters compilation: 1982 edition. Appl Optics 22:2247–2256
Schoeberl MR, Krueger AJ, Newman PA (1986) The morphology of Antarctic total ozone as seen by TOMS. Geophys Res Lett 13:1217–1220
Seiler W (1974) The cycle of atmospheric CO Tellus 26:116–135
Shemansky DE (1972) CO2 extinction coefficient 1700–3000A. J Phys Chem 82:1582–1587
Shettle EP, Fenn RW (1979) Models for the aerosols of the lower atmosphere and the effects of humidity variations on their optical properties. Envir. Res. Papers no. 676, AFGL Tr-79-0214, Air Force Geophys. Lab. Hanscom, Massachusetts
Siegenthaler U (1983) Uptake of excess CO2 by an outcrop diffusion model of the ocean. J Geophys Res 88:3599–3608
Simmonds PG, Alyea FN, Cardelino CA, Crawford, AJ, Cunnold DM, Lane BC, Lovelock JE, Prinn RG, Rasmussen RA (1983) The Atmospheric Lifetime Experiment — 6. Results for carbon tetrachloride based on three years data. J Geophys Res 88:8427–8441
Simonaitis R, Leu MT (1985) An upper limit for the absorption cross section of the oxygen C3Δu→a1Δgtransition. Geophys Res Lett 12:829–832
Solomon S, Crutzen PJ, Roble RG (1982) Photochemical coupling between thermosphere and the lower atmosphere. 1. Odd nitrogen from 50 to 120 km. J Geophys Res 87:7206–7220
Solomon S, Garcia RR, Rowland FS, Wuebbles DJ (1986) On the depletion of Antarctic ozone. Nature 321:755–758
Staley DO, Jurica GM (1976) Flux emissivity tables for water vapor, carbon dioxide and ozone. J Appl Meteorol 9:365–372
Statistisches Bundesamt (1985) Statistisches Jahrbuch 1985 für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland Kohlhammer GmbH, Mainz
Stauffer B, Fischer G, Neftel A, Oeschger H (1985) Increase of atmospheric methane recorded in Antarctic ice core. Science 229:1386–1388
Stolarski RS, Cicerone RJ (1974) Stratospheric chlorine: a possible sink for ozone. Can J Chem 52:1610–1615
Stolarski RS, Krueger AJ, Schoeberl MR, McPeters RD, Newman PA, Alpert JC (1986) Nimbus 7 satellite measurements of the springtime Antarctic ozone decrease. Nature 322:808–811
Stone PH (1973) The effect of large-scale eddies on climatic change. J Atmos Sci 30:521–529
Thompson BA, Harteck P, Reeves Jr RR (1963) Ultraviolet absorption coefficients of CO2, CO, O2, H2O, N2O, NH3, NO, SO2, and CH4 between 1850 and 4000A. J Geophys Res 68:6431–6436
Turman BN, Edgar BC (1982) Global lightning distributions at dawn and dusk. J Geophys Res 87:1191–1206
United Nations (1984) Demographic Yearbook 1982, New York
US Standard Atmosphere (1976) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Washington, D.C., 227 pages (available at NTIS)
Volz A, Kley D (1987) Ozone measurements in the 19th century; evaluation of the Montsouris series. Nature (in press)
Weiss RW (1981) The temporal and spatial distribution of tropospheric nitrous oxide. J Geophys Res 86:7185–7195
Welch RM, Cox SK, Davis JM (1980) Solar radiation and clouds. Meteorol Monogr 17:No. 39, Am Meteor Soc
Wigley TMI, Schlesinger ME (1985) An analytical solution for the effect of increasing CO2 on global mean temperature. Nature 315:649–652
WMO (1982) The stratosphere 1981, theory and measurements. WMO global ozone research and monitoring project. Report no. 11, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, 473 pages
WMO (1982) Atmospheric ozone 1985, WMO global ozone research and monitoring project. Report no. 16, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, 1181 pages
Wuebbles DJ, McCracken MC, Luther FM (1984) A proposed reference set of scenarios for radiatively active atmospheric constituents. Report TR015, (W-7405-ENG-48), US Department of Energy, Washington, D.C.
Yung YL, Pinto JP, Watson RT, Sander SP (1980) Atmospheric bromine and ozone perturbations in the lower stratosphere. J Atmos Sci 37:339–353
Zardini D, Raynaud D, Scharffe D, Seiler W (1987) N2O measurements of air extracted from Antarctic ice cores. Presented at Symposium on Ice Core Analysis, Bern
Zdunkowski WG (1980) An investigation of the structure of typical two-stream-methods for the calculation of solar fluxes and heating rates in clouds. Beitr Phys Atmosph 53:147–166
Zdunkowski WG, Panhans W, Welch RM, Korb GJ (1982) A radiation scheme for circulation and climate models. Beitr Phys Atmosph 55:215–238
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Brühl, C., Crutzen, P.J. Scenarios of possible changes in atmospheric temperatures and ozone concentrations due to man's activities, estimated with a one-dimensional coupled photochemical climate model. Climate Dynamics 2, 173–203 (1988). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01053474
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01053474