Abstract
When Kardiner first described the full syndrome of what is now called PTSD in 1941, he called the trauma response a “physioneurosis,” that is, a mental disorder which affects both the soma and the psyche. Now, more than 40 years later much knowledge has been gained about the biological effects of traumatization. Based on the studies of disruptions of attachment bonds in non-human primates, the animal model of inescapable shock, and numerous studies of traumatized children and adults, we are beginning to understand the nature of the biological changes which underlie the psychological response to trauma. This paper will explore (1) the nature of the biological alterations in response to traumatization, (2) how these biological shifts depend on the maturation of the central nervous system (CNS), cognitive processes, and the social matrix in which they occur, (3) and how these alterations can influence psychopathological and interpersonal processes.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Anisman, H. L., Ritch, M., and Sklar, L. S. (1981). Noradrenergic and dopaminergic interactions in escape behavior.Psychopharmacology 74: 263–268.
Bach-y-Rita, G. (1974). Habitual violence and self-mutilation.Am. J. Psychiat. 131: 1018–1020.
Beck, J., and van der Kolk, B. A. (1987). Behavioral correlates of incest histories in chronically hospitalized women.Am. J. Psychiat. 144: 1474–1476.
Blier, P., and de Montigney, C. (1985). Short term lithium administration enhances serotonergic transmission.Eur. J. Pharmacol. 112: 415–418.
Bowlby, J. (1969).Attachment and Loss, Volume I, Attachment Basic Books, New York.
Bowlby, J. (1973).Attachment and Loss, Volume 2, Separation Basic Books, New York.
Bowlby, J. (1984). Violence in the family as a disorder of the attachment and caregiving systems.Am. J. Psychoanal. 44: 9–27.
Brett, E. A., and Ostroff, R. (1985). Imagery and post-traumatic stress disorder: An overview.Am. J. Psychiat. 142: 417–424.
Brown, G. L., Ebert, M. H., and Goyer, P. (1982). Aggression, suicide and serotonin.Am. J. Psychiat. 134: 741–745.
Bryer, J. B., Nelson, B. A., Baker Miller, J., and Krol, P. (1987). Childhood sexual and physical abuse as factors in adult psychiatric illness.Am. J. Psychiat. 144: 1426–1430.
Bunney, W. E., and Garland, B. L. (1984). Lithium and its possible mode of action. In Post, R. M., and Ballenger, J. C. (eds.),Neurobiology of Mood Disorders Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, pp. 731–743.
Burgess, A. W., and Holstrom, E. (1979). Adaptive strategies in recovery from rape.Am. J. Psychiat. 136: 1278–1282.
Burgess, A. W., Hartmann, C. R., and McCormack, A. (1987). Abused to abuser: Antecedents of socially deviant behavior.Am. J. Psychiat. 144: 1431–1436.
Carmen, E. H., Reiker, P. P., and Mills, T. (1984). Victims of violence and psychiatric illness.Am. J. Psychiat. 141: 378, 379.
Cicchetti, D. (1984). The emergence of developmental psychopathology.Child Dev. 55: 1–7.
Christie, M. J., and Chesher, G. B. (1982). Physical dependence on physiologically released endogenous opiates.Life Sci. 3): 1173–1177.
Coe, C. L., Mendoza, S. P., and Smotherman, W. P. (1978). Mother-infant attachment in the squirrel monkey: Adrenal responses to separation.Behav. Biol. 22: 256–263.
Coe, C. L., Glass, J. C., and Wiener, S. G. (1983). Behavioral, but not physiological adaptation to repeated separation in mother and infant primates.Psychoneuroendocrinology 8: 401–409.
Cohen, M. R., Pichas, D., and Dubois, M. (1982). Stress induced plasma beta endorphin immunoreactivity may predict postoperative morphine.Psychiat. Res. 6: 7–12.
Coid, J., Allolio, B., and Rees, L. H. (1983). Raised plasma metenkephalin in patients who habitually mutilate themselves.Lancet 545–546.
Colt, E. W., Wardlaw, S. L., and Frantz, A. G. (1981). The effect of running on plasma beta endorphin.Life Sci. 28: 1637–1640.
Delaney, R., Tussi, D., and Gold, P. E. (1983). Long-term potentiation as a neurophysiological analog of memory.Pharm. Biochem. Behav. 18: 137–139.
Dobbs, D., and Wilson, W. P. (1960). Observations on the persistence of traumatic war neurosis.J. Ment. Nerv. Dis. 21: 40–46.
Eich, J. E. (1980). The cue dependent nature of state dependent retrieval.Memory Cog. 8: 157–168.
Emde, R. N. (1982).The Development of Attachment and Affiliative Systems Plenum Press, New York.
Fabre-Nys, C., Meller, R. E., and Keverne, E. G. (1982). Opiate antagonists stimulate affilitate behavior in monkeys.Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 6: 653–659.
Field, T. (1985). Attachment as psychobiological attunement: Being on the same wavelength. In Reite, M., and Field, T. (eds.),The Psychobiology of Attachment and Separation Academic Press, Orlando, Fla.
Field, T. and Reite, M. (eds.), (1985).The Psycho-Biology of Attachment and Separation Academic Press, Orlando.
Fish-Murray, C., Koby, E., and van der Kolk, B. A. (1987). The effect of abuse on children's thought. In van der Kolk, B. A. (ed.),Psychological Trauma American Psychiatric Press, Washington DC.
Freud, S. (1919). Introduction to psychoanalysis and the war neuroses. InComplete Psychological Works, Volume 17 (Strachy, J., ed. and trans.), Hogarth Press, London, 1959.
Freud, S. (1920).Beyond the pleasure principle, inComplete Psychological Works, Standard edition, Volume 18 (Strachey, J., ed. and trans.), Hogarth Press, London, 1959.
Gold, P. E., and Zornetzer, S. F. (1983). The mnemon and its juices: Neuromodulation of memory processes.Behav. Neural Biol. 38: 151–189.
Green, A. H. (1978). Self-destructive behavior in battered children.Am. J. Psychiat. 135: 579–582.
Grinker, R. R., and Spiegel, J. J. (1945).Men under Stress McGraw-Hill, New York.
Helzer, J. E., Robins, L. N., and McEvoy, L. (1987). Post-traumatic stress disorder in the general population.N. Engl. J. Med. 26: 1630–1634.
Hendin, H., Pollinger Haas, A., and Singer, P. (1983). The influence of precombat personality on post-traumatic stress disorders.Comp. Psychiat. 24: 530–534.
Herman, J. (1985): Histories of violence in an outpatient clinic.Am. J. Orthopsychiat. 57: 137–141.
Holen, A. (1987).The long term psychological effects of an oil rig disaster, Paper presented at the fourth annual conference of the Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, Baltimore.
Horowitz, M. J. (1976).Stress Response Syndromes Jason Aronson, New York.
Janal, M. N., Colt, E. W. D., Clark, W. C. and Glusman, M. (1984). Pain sensitivity, mood and plasma endocrine levels in man following long-distance running: Effects of naloxone.Pain 19: 13–25.
Jacobs, W. J., and Nadel, L. (1985). Stress-induced recovery of fears and phobias.Psychol. Rev. 92: 512–531.
Kardiner, A. (1941).The Traumatic Neuroses of War P. Hoeber, New York.
Kelly, D. D. (1982). The role of endorphins in stress-induced analgesia.Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 398, 260–271.
Kihlstrom, J. F. (1984). Conscious, subconscious, unconscious: A cognitive perspective. In Bowers, K. S., and Meichenbaum, D. (eds.),The Unconscious Reconsidered Wiley, New York.
Kilpatrick, D. G., Vernonen, L. J., and Best, C. L. (1985). Factors predicting psychological distress in rape victims. In Figley, C. (ed.),Trauma and Its Wake Brunner/Mazel, New York, pp. 113–141.
Kolb, L. C., and Multipassi, L. R. (1982). The conditioned emotional response: A subclass of chronic and delayed post-traumatic stress disorder.Psychiatric Annals 12: 979–987.
Kolb, L. (1987). Neuropsychological hypothesis explaining post-traumatic stress disorder.Am. J. Psychiat. 144: 989–995.
Konner, M. (1982). Biological aspects of the mother-infant bond. In Emde, R. N., and Harmon, R. J. (eds.),The Development of Attachment and Affiliative Systems Plenum, New York.
Kraemer, G. W. (1985). Effects of differences in early social experiences on primate neurobiological-behavioral development. In Reite, M., and Field, T. (eds.),The Psychobiology of Attachment and Separation Academic Press, Orlando, Fla.
Kraemer, G. W., Ebert, M. H., Lake, C. R., and McKinney, G. W. (1984). Hypersensitivity to d-amphetamine several years after early social deprivation in rhesus monkeys.Psychopharmacology 82: 266–271.
Kramer, M., Schoen, L. S., Kinney, L. (1984). The dream experience in dream disturbed Vietnam veterans. In van der Kolk, B. A. (ed.),Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: Psychological and Biological Sequelae American Psychiatric Press, Washington D. C.
Krystal, H. (1968).Massive Psychic Trauma International Universities Press, New York.
Krystal, H. (1984). Psychoanalytic views on human emotional damages. In van der Kolk, B. (ed.).Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: Psychological and Biological Sequelae APA Press, Washington D. C., pp. 1–28.
Laudenslager, M., Capitano, J. P., and Reite, M. (1985). Possible effects of early separation on subsequent immune function in adult macaque monkeys.Am. J. Psychiat. 142: 862–864.
Lindemann, E. (1942). Symptomatology and management of acute grief.Am. J. Psychiat. 101: 141–148.
Lindy, J. (1987).Vietnam, a Case Book Brunner/Mazel, New York.
Lipper, S., Davidson, J. R. T., and Grady, T. A. (1986). Preliminary study of carbamezapine in post-traumatic stress disorder.Psychosomatics 27: 849–854.
MacLean, P. D. (1985). Brain evolution relating to family, play, and the separation call.Arch. Gen. Psychiat. 42: 505–417.
Maier, S. F., Davies, S., and Grau, J. W. (1980). Opiate antagonists and long term analgesic reacton induced by inescapable shock in rats.J. Comp. Psychol. 105: 3–46
Maier, S. F., and Seligman, M. E. P. (1976). Learned helpnessness: Theory and evidence.J. Exp. Psychiat. Gen. 105: 3–46.
Malloy, P. F., Fairbank, J. A., and Keane, T. M. (1983). Validation of a multimethod assessment of post-traumatic stress disorders in Vietnam veterans.J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 51: 4–21.
McCahill, T. W., Meyer, L. C., and Fishman, A. M. (1979).The Aftermath of Rape Heath, Lexington, Mass.
Mitchell, D., Osborne, E. W., and O'Boyle, M. W. (1985). Habituation under stress: Shocked mice show non-associative learning in a T-maze.Behav. Neur. Biol. 43: 212–217.
Neisser, U. (1967).Cognitive Psychology Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J.
Newman, J. D., Murphy, M. R., and Harbough, C. R. (1982). Naloxone-reversible suppression of isolation call production after morphine injections in squirrel monkeys.Soc. Neur. Abstr. 8: 940.
Panksepp, J. (1980). Brief social isolation, pain responsivity and morphine analgesia in young rats.Psychopharmacology 72: 110–112.
Panksepp, J., Sivey, S. M., and Normansell, L. A. (1985). Brain opioids and social emotions. In Reite, M., and Field, T. (eds.),The Psychobiology of Attachment and Separation Academic Press, Orlando, Fla., pp. 3–49.
Pattison, E. M., and Kahan, J. (1983). The deliberate self-harm syndrome.Am. J. Psychiat. 140: 867–872.
Piaget, J. (1970).Structuralism Basic Books, New York.
Pitman, R., Orr, S., Laforgue, D., and DeJong, J. (1987). Psychophysiology of PTSD imagery in Vietnam combat veterans.Arch. Gen. Psychiat. 44.
Pitman, R., Orr, S., van der Kolk, B., and Greenberg, M. Opioid mediated stress induced analgesia in Vietnam Veterans with PTSD (submitted for publication).
Pynoos, R. S., and Eth, S. (1985). Developmental perspective on psychic trauma in childhood. In Figley, C. R. (ed.),Trauma and Its Wake Brunner/Mazel, New York.
Putnam, F. W., Guroff, J. J., and Silberman, E. K. (1986). The clinical phenomenology of Multiple Personality Disorder.J. Clin. Psychiat. 47: 285–293.
Rainey, J. M., Aleem, A., Oritz, A., Yaragani, V., Pohl, R., and Berchow, R. (1987). Laboratory procedure for the inducement of flashbacks.Am. J. Psychiat. 144: 1317–1319.
Rajecki, D. W., Lamb, M. E., and Obmascher, P. (1978). Toward a general theory of infantile attachment: A comparative review of aspects of the social bond.Behav. Brain Sci. 3: 417–464.
Reite, M., Short, R., and Seiler, C. (1981). Attachment, loss and depression.J. Child Psychol. Psychiat. 22: 141–169.
Richardson, J. S., and Zaleski, W. A. (1983). Naloxone and self-mutilation.Biol. Psychiat. 18: 99–101.
Sapolsky, R., Krey, L., and McEwen, B. S. (1984). Stress down-regulates corticosterone receptors in a site specific manner in the brain.Endocrinology 114: 287–292.
Sherman, A. D., and Petty, F. (1980). Neurochemical basis of the action of antidepressants on learned helplessness.Behav. Neurol. Biol. 30: 119–134.
Shore, J. H., Tatum, E. L., and Vollmer, W. M. (1986). Psychiatric reactions to disaster: The Mount St. Helens experience.Am. J. Psychiat. 143: 590–595.
Shoularsh, J. (1987).Combat addiction, Paper presented at the Fourth Annual Meeting of the Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, Baltimore.
Simpson, C. A., and Porter, G. L. (1981). Self-mutilation in children and adolescents.Bull. Menn. Clin. 45: 428–438.
Spiegel, D. (1981). Vietnam grief work using hypnosis.Am. J. Clin. Hypnosis 24: 33–40.
Spitz, R. (1945). Hospitalism: An inquiry into the genesis of psychiatric conditions in early childhood.Psychoanalytic Study Child 1: 53–74.
Squire, L. R. (1987).Memory and the Brain Oxford University Press, New York.
Stoddard, F. (1985).Stress disorders in burned children and adolescents, Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, Dallas.
Strian, F., and Klicpera, C. (1978). Die Bedeuting psychoautonomische Reaktionen im Entstehung und Persistenz von Angstzustanden.Nervenartzt 49: 576–583.
Tennes, K. (1982). The role of hormones in mother-infant transactions. In Emde, R. N., and Harmon, R. J., (eds.),The Development of Attachment and Affiliative Systems Plenum, New York, pp. 75–80.
Terr, L. (1979). Children of Chowchilla, a study of psychic trauma.Psychoanalytic Study Child 34: 547–623.
Terr, L. (1983). Chowchilla revisited: The effects of psychic trauma four years after a school bus kidnapping.Am. J. Psychiatry 140: 1543–1550.
van der Kolk, B. A. (1983). Psychopharmacological issues in post-traumatic stress disorder.Hosp. Comm. Psychiat. 34: 683–691.
van der Kolk, B. A. (1987).Psychological Trauma American Psychiatric Press, Washington D. C.,
van der Kolk, B. A., Blitz, R., Burr, W., Sherry, S., and Hartmann, E. (1984). Nightmares and trauma.Am. J. Psychiat. 141: 187–190.
van der Kolk, B. A., and Ducey, C. P. (1984). Clinical implications of the Rorschach in post-traumatic stress. In van der Kolk, B. A. (ed.),Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: Psychological and Biological Sequelae American Psychiatric Press, Washington, D. C.
van der Kolk, B. A., Greenberg, M. S., Boyd, H., and Krystal, J. (1985). Inescapable shock, neurotransmitters and addition to trauma: Towards a psychobiology of post-traumatic stress.Biological Psychiat. 20: 314–325.
van der Kolk, B. A., Herman, J. L., and Perry, C. (1987).Traumatic antecedents of borderline personality disorder, Paper presented at the Fourth Annual Meeting of the Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, Baltimore.
Visintainer, M. A., Volpicelli, J. R., and Seligman, M. E. P. (1982). Tumor rejection in rats after inescapable shock.Science 216: 437–439.
Weiss, J. M., Glazer, H. I., Pohorecky, L. A.,et al. (1975): Effects of chronic exposure to stressors on subsequent avoidance-escape behavior and on brain norepinephrine.Psychosom. Med. 37: 522–524.
White, S. H., and Pillemer, D. B. (1979). Childhood amnesia and the development of a socially accessible memory system. In Kihlstrom, J. F., and Evans, F. J. (eds.),Functional Disorders of Memory, Hillsdale, N. J.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
About this article
Cite this article
van der Kolk, B.A. The trauma spectrum: The interaction of biological and social events in the genesis of the trauma response. J Trauma Stress 1, 273–290 (1988). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00974765
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00974765