Skip to main content
Log in

Artificial tracers for geothermal reservoir studies

  • Published:
Environmental Geology

Abstract

Safe disposal of thermally spent geothermal brines that contain environmentally hazardous constituents is commonly obtained by reinjection. The reinjection process also serves to maintain reservoir pressure, enhance thermal recovery, and eliminate possible compactional subsidence. To avoid premature thermal breakthrough of reinjected fluids, tracer tests are employed for detection and evaluation of preferential path networks. In this paper some promising tracers that have not received much attention in geothermal reservoir studies are discussed, and a comprehensive tabulation of field sites of artificial tracer utilization is presented. Chemical and transport processes responsible for tracer retention by the formation of reservoir solids, as well as available tracer detection techniques, are emphasized.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adams MC (1985) Tracer stability and chemical changes in an injected geothermal fluid during injection-backflow testing at the East Mesa geothermal field. Proc. Tenth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA. SGP-TR-84. pp. 247–252

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams MC and Davis J (1991) Kinetics of fluorescein decay and its application as geothermal tracer. Geothermics 20(1/2):53–66

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams MC and Moore JN (1985) Development and application of tracers: Examples of field experimental studies. Proc Geothermal Program Review IV, US Department of energy, Washington D.C. CONF-8509142. pp 141–146

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams MC, Ahn JH, Bentley H, Moore JN and Veggeberg S (1986a) Tracer developments: results of experimental studies. Proc Eleventh Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA. SGP-TR-93. pp 97–102

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams MC, Ahn JH, Bentley H, Moore JN and Veggeberg S (1986b) Derivatized hydrocarbons as geothermal tracers. Geotherm Resour Counc Trans 10:415–420

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams MC, Benoit WR, Doughty C, Bodvarsson GS and Moore JN (1989) The Dixie Valley, Nevada tracer test. Geotherm Resour Counc Trans 13:215–220

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Riyami Y (1985) Thermal stability of fluorescent dyes: Injection technology. In: Horne RN (Ed), Geothermal reservoir engineering research at Stanford. Stanford Geothermal Program Report SGP-TR-92. pp 16–22 Stanford University, Stanford, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aldous PJ and Smart PL (1988) Tracing ground-water movement in abandoned coal mined aquifers using fluorescent dyes. Ground Water 26(2):172–178

    Google Scholar 

  • Allison SB, Pope GA and Sepehrnoori K (1991) Analysis of field tracers for reservoir description. J Petrol Sci Eng 5:173–186

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews JN (1983) Dissolved radioelements and inert gases in geothermal investigations. Geo-thermic 12(2/3):67–82

    Google Scholar 

  • Aulenbach DB, Bull JH and Middlesworth BC (1978) Use of tracers to confirm ground-water flow. Ground Water 16(3):149–157

    Google Scholar 

  • Batchelor AS (1986) Reservoir behavior in a simulated hot dry rock system. Proc Eleventh Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA. SGP-TR-93, pp 35–41

    Google Scholar 

  • Behrens H, Moser H and Wildner E (1977) Investigation of ground-water flow with the aid of indium-EDTA complex using neutron activation for the determination of the tracer. J. Radioanal Chem 38:491–498

    Google Scholar 

  • Bodvarsson GS and Stefansson V (1989) Some theoretical and field aspects of reinjection in geothermal reservoirs. Water Resour Res 25(6):1235–1248

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowen RG (1973) Environmental impact of geothermal development. Geothermal energy. In: Kruger P and Otte C (Eds), Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, pp 197–215

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowman RS (1984) Evaluation of some new tracers for soil water studies. Soil Sci Soc Am J 48:987–993

    Google Scholar 

  • Breitenbach KA and Horne RN (1982) Evaluation of chemical tracers for geothermal use. Proc Pacific Geothermal Conf., 4th New Zealand Geothermal Workshop, pp 229–233

  • Capuano RM, Adams MC and Wright PM (1983) Tracer recovery and mixing from two geothermal injection-backflow studies. Proc. Ninth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA. SGP-TR-74. pp 299–304

    Google Scholar 

  • Chrysikopoulos CV and Kruger P (1986a) Thermal stability of chelated indium activable tracers. Proc. Eleventh Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA. SGP-TR-93. pp 103–107

    Google Scholar 

  • Chrysikopoulos CV and Kruger P (1986b) Chelated indium activable tracers for geothermal reservoirs. Stanford Geothermal Program Report SGP-TR-99 Stanford University, Stanford, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chrysikopoulos CV and Kruger P (1987) Investigation of soluble indium chelates for groundwater and hydrothermal fluid tracing. Appl Geochem 2:329–335

    Google Scholar 

  • Chrysikopoulos CV, Roberts PV and Kitanidis PK (1990a) Onedimensional solute transport in porous media with partial well-to-well recirculation: application to field experiments. Water Resour Res 26(6):1189–1195

    Google Scholar 

  • Chrysikopoulos CV, Kitanidis PK and Roberts PV (1990b) Analysis of one-dimensional solute transport through porous media with spatially variable retardation factor. Water Resour Res 26(3):437–446

    Google Scholar 

  • Chrysikopoulos CV, Kitanidis PK and Roberts PV (1992) Generalized Taylor-Aris moment analysis of the transport of sorbing solutes through porous media with spatially-periodic retardation factor. Transport in Porous Media 7(2):163–185

    Google Scholar 

  • Ciccioli P, Cooper WT, Hammer PM and Hayes JM (1980) Organic solute-mineral surface interactions: A new method for the determination of groundwater velocities. Water Resour Res 16(1):217–223

    Google Scholar 

  • Clarke EA and Anliker R (1980) Organic dyes and pigments. In: Hutzinger O (Ed), The handbook of environmental chemistry. Anthropogenic compounds, Vol. 3A. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp 181–215

    Google Scholar 

  • Colour Index 3 ed, vol. 2. (1971) Bradford, Great Britain: Society of Dyers and Colourists.

  • Cosner SR and Apps JA (1978) Compilation of data on fluids from geothermal resources in the United States. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report LBL-5936 University of California, Berkeley, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crittenden MD Jr (1981) Environmental aspects of geothermal development: In; Geothermal systems: Principles and case histories. Rybach L and Muffler LJP (Ed), New York: Wiley Interscience, pp 199–217

    Google Scholar 

  • D'Amore F and Truesdell A (1984) Helium in the Larderello geothermal fluid. Geothermics 13(3):227–239

    Google Scholar 

  • D'Amore F, Fancelli R and Panichi C (1987) Stable isotope study of reinjection processes in the Larderello geothermal field. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 51:857–867

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis SN, Thompson GM, Bentley HW and Stiles G (1980) Ground-water tracers: A short review. Ground Water 18(1):14–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis SN, Campbell DJ, Bentley HW and Flynn TJ (1985) Ground water tracers. National Water Well Association. 200 pp EPA, Ada, Oklahoma

    Google Scholar 

  • Downs WF, McAtee RE, Capuano RM and Sill W (1982) Hydrothermal injection experiments at the Raft River KGRA, Idaho. Proc. Eighth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA. SGP-TR-60. pp 275–278

    Google Scholar 

  • Durant MG and Roberts PV (1986) Spatial variability of organic solute sorption in the Borden aquifer. Tech. Report 303, Department of Civil Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA

    Google Scholar 

  • Einarsson SS, Vides RA and Cuéllar G (1975) Disposal of geothermal waste water by reinjection. Proc. 2nd UN Symposium on the Development and Use of Geothermal Resources. San Francisco, CA. pp 1349–1363

  • Ellis AJ (1977) Chemical and isotopic techniques in geothermal investigations. Geothermics 5:3–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellis AJ (1978) Geothermal fluid chemistry and human health. Geothermics 6:175–182

    Google Scholar 

  • Feuerstein DL and Selleck RE (1963) Fluorescent tracers for dispersion measurements. J Sanit Eng Div ASCE 89(SA4):1–21

    Google Scholar 

  • Florkowski T (1981) Low-level tritium assay in water samples by electrolytic enrichment and liquid-scintillation counting in the IAEA laboratory. Proceedings Series IAEA SM-252/63. pp 335–351 International Atomic Energy Agency, Viena, Austria

    Google Scholar 

  • Flühler H, Polomski J and Blaser P (1982) Retention and movement of fluoride in soils. J Environ Qual 11(3):461–468

    Google Scholar 

  • Grisak GE and Pickens JF (1980) Solute transport through fractured media, 1, The effect of matrix diffusion. Water Resour Res 16(4):719–730

    Google Scholar 

  • Gudmundsson JS, Johnson SE, Horne RN, Jackson PB, and Gulver GG (1983) Doublet tracer testing in Klamath Falls, Oregon. Proc Ninth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA. SGP-TR-74. pp 331–337

    Google Scholar 

  • Gudmundsson JS, Hauksson T, Thorhallsson S, Albertsson A and Thorolfsson G (1984) Injection and tracer testing in Svartsengi field, Iceland. Proc 6th New Zealand Geothermal Workshop. pp 175–180

  • Gulati MS, Lipman SC and Strobel CJ (1978) Tritium tracer survey at The Geysers. Geotherm Resourc Counc Trans 2:237–239

    Google Scholar 

  • Heisler RP (1988) Interpretation of radioactive tracer results in a streamdrive project. SPE Reservoir Eng 3(l):281–287

    Google Scholar 

  • Home RN (1982a) Effects of water injection into fractured geothermal reservoirs: A summary of experience worldwide. In: Fractures in geothermal reservoirs, Special report 12. Davis, CA: Geothermal Resources Council, pp 45–61

    Google Scholar 

  • Horne RN (1982b) Geothermal reinjection experience in Japan. J Petrol Technol, 34:495–503

    Google Scholar 

  • Home RN (1985) Reservoir aspects of reinjection. Geothermics 14(2/3):449–457

    Google Scholar 

  • Home RN and Puente H (1989) Tracer testing at Los Azufres. Proc Fourteenth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA. SGP-TR-122. pp 197–199

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoy JE (1968) Tritium enrichment by gas-solid chromatography: Technique for low-level analysis. Science 161:464–465

    Google Scholar 

  • Hulston JR (1983) Environmental isotope investigations of New Zealand geothermal systems: A review. Geothermics 12(2/3):223–232

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen M and Kristensen KK (1989) Effects of rhodamine water tracer onEscherichia coli densities. Water Res 232):257–259

    Google Scholar 

  • Johns RA (1987) Injection through fractures. Stanford Geothermal Program Report SGP-TR-110 Stanford University, Stanford, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson SE (1984) Tracer test analysis of the Klamath Falls geothermal resource: A comparison of models. Stanford Geothermal Program Report SGP-TR-81

  • Jouzel J and Merlivat L (1981) Low-level tritium measurements in water: A complete system including liquid scintillation, gas counting and electrolysis. Proceedings Series IAEA-SM-252/54. pp 325–334

  • Kacandes GH and Grandstaff DE (1989) Differences between geothermal and experimentally derived fluids: How well do hydrothermal experiments model the composition of geothermal reservoir fluids? Geochim Cosmochim Acta 53:343–358

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman WJ and Orlob GT (1956) Measuring ground water movement with radioactive and chemical tracers. Am Water Works Assoc J 48:559–572

    Google Scholar 

  • Kocabas I (1986) Analysis of injection-backflow tracer tests. Stanford Geothermal Program Report SGP-TR-96 Stanford University, Stanford, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kocabas I (1989) Analysis of tracer and thermal transients during injection. PhD dissertation. Stanford University, Stanford CA

    Google Scholar 

  • Kocabas I and Home RN (1987) Analysis of injection-backflow tracer tests in fractured geothermal reservoirs. Proc. Twelfth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA. SGP-TR-109. pp 233–240

    Google Scholar 

  • Kocabas I and Home RN (1988) Injection-backflow tracer test interpretation. In: Home RN (Ed), Reservoir and injection technology: Geothermal reservoir engineering research at Stanford. Stanford Geothermal Program Report SGP-TR-114. pp 15–21.

  • Koryta J and Stulik K (1983) Ion-selective electrodes, 2nd ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruger P (1971) Principles of activation analysis. New York: Wiley-Interscience

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruger P and Channell JK (1970) Use of rare-earth elements as tracers in estuaries. Isotope Hydrol 1970:869–883

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruger P, Stoker A and Umana A (1977) Radon in geothermal reservoir engineering. Geothermics 5:13–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Krupp HK and Elrick DE (1969) Density effects in miscible displacement experiments. Soil Sci 107(5):372–380

    Google Scholar 

  • Lederer CM and Shirley VS (1978) Table of isotopes, 7th ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience. 1523 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindsey MK and Supton P (1975) Geothermal energy legal problems of resource development. Stanford, CA: Stanford Environmental Law Society

    Google Scholar 

  • Malcolm RL, Aiken GR, Thurman EM and Avery PA (1980) Hydrophilic organic solutes as tracers in groundwater recharge studies. In: Baker RA (Ed), Contaminants and sediments, vol. 2: Analysis, chemistry, biology Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science. pp 71–88

    Google Scholar 

  • Małoszewski P and Zuber A (1985) On the theory of tracer experiments in fissured rocks with a porous matrix. J Hydrol 79:333–358

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazor E (1977) Geothermal tracing with atmospheric and radiogenic noble gases. Geothermics 5:21–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazor E and Truesdell AH (1984) Dynamics of a geothermal field traced by noble gases: Cerro Prieto, Mexico. Geothermics 13(1/2):91–102

    Google Scholar 

  • McCabe WJ and Barry BJ (1985) Some results of radio-tracer tests of hot water flow in geothermal systems. Proc. CSIRO/DSIR Seminar on Convective Flows in Porous Media, Wellington, New Zealand, pp 185–189

  • McCabe WJ, Barry BJ and Manning MR (1983) Radioactive tracers in geothermal underground water flow studies. Geothermics 12(2/3):83–110

    Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre FJ, Polkowski GA, Bron J and Pow MJ (1988) Radioactive tracers monitor solvent spreading in Rainbow vertical hydrocarbon miscible flood. SPE Reservoir Eng 3(1):273–280

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer BR, Bain CAR, DeJesus ASM and Stephenson D (1981) Radiotracer evaluation of groundwater dispersion in a multilayered aquifer. J Hydrol 50:259–271

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller JM (1988) Chromatography: Concepts and contrasts: New York: Wiley Interscience

    Google Scholar 

  • Navada SV, Kulkarni UP and Rao SM (1981) Study of trace analysis of iodide by cerium(IV)-arsenic(III) catalytic method and indium-EDTA neutron activation method for hydrological investigation. In: Das SM (Ed), Trace analysis and technological development. Wiley, New York, N.Y. pp 257–271

    Google Scholar 

  • Panichi C and Gonfiantini R (1978) Environmental isotopes in geothermal studies. Geothermics 6:143–161

    Google Scholar 

  • Pickens JF and Grisak GE (1981) Scale-dependent dispersion in a stratified granular aquifer. Water Resour Res 17(4):1191–1211

    Google Scholar 

  • Pilgrim DH (1978) Adsorption losses and performance of51Cr-EDTA and198Au in tracing of flood runoff. J Hydrol 36:47–64

    Google Scholar 

  • PNOC (1981) Reinjection tests at Tongonan geothermal site: Philippine National Oil Company Energy Development Corporation Report, Manila, Philippines

  • Pruess K (1990) Modeling of geothermal reservoirs: Fundamental processes, computer simulation and field applications. Geothermics 19(1):3–15

    Google Scholar 

  • Pruess K and Bodvarsson GS (1984) Thermal effects of reinjection in geothermal reservoirs with major vertical fractures. J Petrol Technol 36:1567–1578

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts PV, Goltz MN and Mackay DM (1986) A natural gradient experiment on solute transport in a sand aquifer, 3, retardation estimates and mass balances for organic solutes. Water Resour Res 22(13):2047–2058

    Google Scholar 

  • Robertson DE and Carpenter R (1974) Neutron activation techniques for the measurement of trace metals in environmental samples. National Academy of Science-National Research Council, NAS-NS-3114, US Atomic Energy Commission Oak Ridge, Tennessee

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson BA (1985) Non-reactive and chemically reactive tracers: Theory and applications. PhD dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA

    Google Scholar 

  • Rose DA and Passioura JB (1971) Gravity segregation during miscible displacement experiments. Soil Sci 111(4):258–265

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarmiento ZF (1986) Waste water reinjection at Tongonan geothermal field: Results and implications. Geothermics 15(3):295–308

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmotzer JK, Jester WA and Parizek RR (1973) Groundwater tracing with post sampling activation. J Hydrol 20:217–236

    Google Scholar 

  • Schroeder RC, O'Sullivan MJ, Pruess K, Celati R and Ruffilli C (1982) Reinjection studies of vapor-dominated systems. Geothermics 11(2):93–119

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott CH, Norman VW and Fields FK (1969) Reduction of fluorescence of two tracer dyes by contact with a fine sediment. US Geological Survey Prof. Paper 650-B, B164-B168

  • Semprini L (1985) Modeling and field studies of radon-222 in geothermal reservoirs. PhD dissertation. Stanford University, Stanford, CA

    Google Scholar 

  • Semprini L and Kruger P (1984) Relationship of radon concentration to spatial and temporal variations of reservoir thermodynamic conditions in the Cerro Prieto geothermal field. Geothermics 13(1/2):103–115

    Google Scholar 

  • Smart PL and Laidlaw IMS (1977) An evaluation of some fluorescent dyes for water tracing: Water Resour Res 13(1):15–33

    Google Scholar 

  • Smart PL and Smith DI (1976) Water tracing in tropical regions, the use of fluorometric techniques in Jamaica. J Hydrol 30:179–195

    Google Scholar 

  • Smettem KRJ and Trudgill ST (1983) An evaluation of some fluorescent and non-fluorescent dyes in the identification of water transmission routes in soils. J Soil Sci 34:45–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Stryker HI (1968) Xanthene dyes. US Patent 3,367,946. Official gazette of the United States Patent Office 847:252

    Google Scholar 

  • Stumm W and Morgan JJ (1981) Aquatic chemistry, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience

    Google Scholar 

  • Tai DY and Rathbun RE (1988) Photolysis of rhodamine-WT dye. Chemosphere 17(3):559–573

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor CB (1981) Present status and trends in electrolytic enrichment of low-level tritium in water. Proceedings Series IAEA-SM-252/ 68, pp 303–323 Viena, Austria

  • Tester JW (1985) Inert and reacting tracers for reservoir sizing. Proc. Geothermal Program Review IV, CONF-8509142, US Department of Energy, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tester JW, Bivins RL and Potter RM (1982) Interwell tracer analyses of a hydraulically fractured granitic geothermal reservoir. SPE J 22:537–554

    Google Scholar 

  • Tester JW, Robinson BA and Ferguson JH (1986) Inert and reacting tracers for reservoir sizing in fractured, hot dry rock systems. Proc. Eleventh Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA. SGP-TR-93, pp 149–159

    Google Scholar 

  • Tester JW, Robinson BA and Ferguson JH (1987) The theory and selection of chemically reactive tracers for reservoir thermal capacity production. Proc. Twelfth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA. SGP-TR-109, pp 219–227

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson GM, Hayes JM and Davis SN (1974) Fluorocarbon tracers in hydrology: Geophysical Research Letters 1(4):177–180

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsai F, Juprasert S and Sanyal SK (1978) A review of the chemical composition of geothermal effluents. Proc. Second Workshop on Sampling Geothermal Effluents, EPA-600/7-78-121, pp 84–96

  • Tsang CF, Bodvarsson GS, Lippmann MJ and Rivera RJ (1980) Some aspects of the response of geothermal reservoirs to brine reinjection with application to the Cerro Prieto field. Geothermics 9:213–220

    Google Scholar 

  • Urbino MEG, Zaide MC, Malate RCM and Bueza EL (1986) Structural flowpaths of reinjected fluids based on tracer tests: Palinpinon I. Philippines. Proc. 8th New Zealand Geothermal Workshop, pp 53–58

  • Verhagen BT (1967) Rapid isotope enrichment of gases by thermal diffusion for nuclear dating. Proceedings Series IAEA, pp 657–672 Viena, Austria

  • Wagner OR (1977) The use of tracers in diagnosing interwell reservoir heterogeneities: field results. J Petrol Technol 29:1410–1416

    Google Scholar 

  • Walkup GW Jr and Horne RN (1985) Forecasting thermal break-through of reinjected water using a dispersion-retenlion model for tracer test interpretation. Geotherm Resour Counc Trans 9(2):369–374

    Google Scholar 

  • Warner IM (1986) Molecular fluorescence and phosphorescence. In: Christian GD and O'Reilly JE (Eds), Instrumental Analysis, 2nd ed. Newton, MA: Allyn and Bacon pp 247–277

    Google Scholar 

  • Weast RC (1984) CRC handbook of chemistry and physics, 64th ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Weres O (1988) Environmental proteclion and chemistry of geothermal fluids. Geotherm Sci Technol 1(3):253–302

    Google Scholar 

  • White RE, Thomas GW and Smith MS (1984) Modelling water flow through undisturbed soil cores using a transfer function model derived from3HOH and Cl transport. J Soil Sci 35:159–168

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright PM (1984) Applications of geochemistry to problems in geothermal injection. Proc Geothermal Program Review III, CONF-8410179, US Department of Energy, pp 51–87

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Chrysikopoulos, C.V. Artificial tracers for geothermal reservoir studies. Geo 22, 60–70 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00775286

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00775286

Key words

Navigation