Abstract
Freshwater eutrophication is often accelerated by increased phosphorus (P) inputs, a greater share of which now come from agricultural nonpoint sources than two decades ago. Maintenance of soil P at levels sufficient for crop needs is an essential part of sustainable agriculture. However, in areas of intensive crop and livestock production in Europe and the U.S.A., P has accumulated in soils to levels that are a long-term eutrophication rather than agronomic concern. Also, changes in land management in Europe and the U.S.A. have increased the potential for P loss in surface runoff and drainage. There is, thus, a need for information on how these factors influence the loss of P in agricultural runoff. The processes controlling the build-up of P in soil, its transport in surface and subsurface drainage in dissolved and particulate forms, and their biological availability in freshwater systems, are discussed in terms of environmentally sound P management. Such management will involve identifying P sources within watersheds; targeting cost-effective remedial measures to minimize P losses; and accounting for different water quality objectives within watersheds. The means by which this can be achieved are identified and include developing soil tests to determine the relative potential for P enrichment of agricultural runoff to occur; establishing threshold soil P levels which are of environmental concern; finding alternative uses for animal manures to decrease land area limitations for application; and adopting management systems integrating measures to reduce P sources as well as runoff and erosion potential.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aarts HFJ, Biewinga EE and Van Keulen H (1993) Dairy farming systems based on efficient nutrient management. Netherlands J of Agric Sci 40: 285–299.
Adriano DC, Novak LT, Erikson AE, Wolcott AR and Ellis BG (1975) Effect of long-term disposal by spray irrigation of food processing wastes on some chemical properties of the soil and subsurface water. J Environ Qual 4: 242–248
Bache BW and Williams EG (1971) A phosphate sorption index for soils. J Soil Sci 22: 289–301
Bailey-Watts AE and Kirika A (1987) A reassessment of phosphorus inputs to Loch Leven (Kinross, Scotland): Rationale and an overview of results on instantaneous loadings with special reference to runoff. Trans Royal Soc of Edinburgh. Earth Sci 78: 351–367
Baker JL, Campbell KL, Johnson HP and Hanway JJ (1975) Nitrate, phosphorus and sulfate in subsurface drainage waters. J Environ Qual 4: 406–412
Berry JT and Hargett NL (1989) Fertilizer summary data, 1988 TVA/NFDC-89/3, Bulletin Y-209. Natl Fert Develop Center, TVA, Muscle Shoals, AL, pp130
Bolton EF, Aylesworth JW and Hove FR (1970) Nutrient losses through tile drainage under three cropping systems and two fertility levels on a Brookston clay soil. Can J Soil Sci 50: 272–279
Breeuwsma A and Silva S (1992) Phosphorus fertilization and environmental effects in The Netherlands and the Po region (Italy). Rep. 57. Agric. Res. Dep. The Winand Staring Centre for Integrated Land, Soil and Water Research. Wageningen, The Netherlands
Burwell RE, Schuman GE, Heinemann HG and Spomer RG (1977) Nitrogen and phosphorus movement from agricultural watersheds. J Soil and Water Conserv 32: 226–230
Cogger G and Duxbury JM (1984) Factors affecting phosphorus losses from cultivated organic soils. J Environ Qual 13: 111–114
Culley JLB, Bolton EF and Bernyk V (1983) Suspended solids and phosphorus loads from a clay soil: I. Plot studies. J Environ Qual 12: 493–498
Delumyea RG and Petel RL (1977) Atmospheric inputs of phosphorus to southern Lake Huron, April-October, 1975. U.S. EPA Report No. 600/3-77-038. Duluth, MN
Dorich RA, Nelson DW and Sommers LE (1980) Algal availability of sediment phosphorus in drainage water of the Black Creek watershed. J Environ Qual 9: 557–563
Duxbury JM and Peverly JH (1978) Nitrogen and phosphorus losses from organic soils. J Environ Qual 7: 566–570
Elder FC (1975) International Joint Commission Program for Atmospheric Loading of the Upper Great Lakes. Second Interagency Committee on Marine Science and Engineering Conference on the Great Lakes, Argonne, IL
Federico AC, Dickson KG, Kratzer CR and Davis FE (1981) Lake Okeechobee water quality studies and eutrophication assessment. Tech. Pub. 81-2. South Florida Water Management District, West Palm Beach, FL. 270 pp
Fox RL and Kamprath EJ (1971) Adsorption and leaching of P in acid organic soils and high organic matter sand. Soil Sci Soc Am Proc 35: 154–156
Foy RH, Smith RV, Stevens RJ and Stewart DA (1982) Identification of factors affecting nitrogen and phosphorus loadings to Lough Neagh. J Environ Manag 15: 109–129
Gotoh S and Patrick WH Jr (1974) Transformations of iron in a waterlogged soil as influenced by redox potential and pH. Soil Sci Soc Am Proc 38: 66–71
Hanway, JJ and Laflen JM (1974) Plant nutrient losses from tile outlet terraces. J Environ Qual 7: 208–212
Harper DM and Stewart DM (1987) The effects of land use upon water chemistry, particularly nutrient enrichment, in shallow lowland lakes: comparative studies of three lochs in Scotland. Hydrobiologica 148: 211–229
Haynes RJ and Williams PH (1992) Long term effect of superphosphate on accumulation of soil phosphorus and exchangeable actions on a grazed, irrigated pasture site. Plant and Soil 42: 123–133
Hillbricht-Ilkowska A (1988) Transport and transformation of phosphorus compounds in watersheds of Baltic Lakes. p. 193–206. In Tiessen H (ed) Phosphorus Cycles in Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems. Regional Workshop 1: Europe. May 1988, Czerniejewo, Poland. Published by Saskatchewan Institute of Pedology, Saskatoon, Canada
House WA and Casey H (1989) Transport of phosphorus in rivers. pp. 253–282. In Tiessen H (ed) Phosphorus Cycles in Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems. Proceedings of the SCOPE and UNEP 7: Europe. May 1 – May 6, 1988, Czerniejewo, Poland
Houston JA and Brooker MP (1981) A comparison of nutrient sources and behaviour in two lowland sub-catchments of the River Wye. Water Res 15: 49–57
Hortensteine CC and Forbes RB (1972) Concentration of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and total soluble salts in soil solution samples from fertilized and unfertilized histosols. J Environ Qual 1: 466–449
Huettl PJ, Wendt RC and Corey RB (1979) Prediction of algal available phosphorus in runoff suspension. J Environ Qual 4: 541–548
Iserman K (1990) Share of agriculture in nitrogen and phosphorus emissions into the surface waters of Western Europe against the background of their eutrophication. Fert Res 26: 253–269
Johnes PJ (1990) An investigation of the effects of land use upon water quality in the Windrush catchment. D. Phil Thesis, University of Oxford
Johnston AE (1989) Phosphorus cycling in intensive arable agriculture. p. 123–126. In: Tiessen H (ed) Proceedings of a SCOPE and UNEP Workshop, May 1 to May 6, 1988, Czerniejewo, Poland
Kauppi L (1990) Hydrology: Water quality changes pp. 43–66. In Solomon AM and Kauppi L (eds) Towards Ecological Sustainability in Europe. International Institute for Applied System Analysis, Laxemburg, Austria
Khalid RA, Patrick WH Jr and Delaune RD (1977) Phosphorus sorption characteristics of flooded soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J 41: 301–305
Kiely PV (1981) Catchment pollution. p. 87–91. In Logan JC (ed) Nitrogen Losses and Surface Runoff from Landspreading of Manures. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague
Klausner SD Zaverman PJ and Ellis DF (1976) Nitrogen and phosphorus losses from winter disposal of dairy manure. J Environ Qual 5: 46–49
Kotak BG, Kenefick SL, Fritz DL, Rousseaux CG, Prepas EE and Hrudey SE (1993) Occurence and toxicological evaluation of cyanobacterial toxins in Alberta lakes and farm dugouts. Water Res 27: 495–506
Krogstad T and Lovstad O (1989) Erosion, phosphorus, and phytoplankton response in rivers of South-eastern Norway. Hydrobiologia 183: 33–41
Lawton LA and Codd GA (1991) Cyanobacterial (blue-green algal) toxins and their significance in U.K. and European waters. J Inst Wat Environ Manag 5: 460–465
Lee GF (1973) Role of phosphorus in eutrophication and diffuse source control. Water Res 7: 111–128
Lemunyon JL and Gilbert RG (1993) Concept and need for a phosphorus assessment tool. J Prod Agric. 6: 483–486
Levine SL and Schindler DW (1989) Phosphorus nitrogen and carbon dynamics of experimental lake 303 during recovery from eutrophication. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 46: 2–10
Lund JWG and Moss B (1990) Eutrophication in the United Kingdom, Trends in the 1980's. A report to the Soap and Detergent Industry, Hayes, Middlesex, United Kingdom. 81 pp
McAllister JSV (1976) Studies in Northern Ireland on problems related to the disposal of slurry. pp. 418–431. London, United Kingdom. Agriculture and Water Quality, Technical Bulletin 32, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, London, United Kingdom
McColl RHS (1974) Self-purification of small freshwater streams: Phosphate, nitrate and ammonia removal. NZ J Mar Freshwater Res 8: 375–388
McColl RHS, White E and Gibson AR (1977) Phosphorus and nitrate runoff in hill pasture and forest catchments, Taita, New Zealand. NZ J Mar Freshwater Res 11: 729–744
McCollum RE (1991) Buildup and decline in soil phosphorus: 30-year trends on a Typic Umprabuult. Agron J 83: 77–85
McDowell LL and McGregor KC (1984) Plant nutrient losses in runoff from conservation tillage corn. Soil Tillage Res 4: 79–91
Miller WE, Greene JC and Shiroyarna T (1978) TheSelenastrum capricornutum Printz alagal assay bottle test and data interpretation protocol. U.S. EPA, Tech Rep EPA-600/9-78-018, Corvallis, OR
Miller MH (1979) Contribution of nitrogen and phosphorus to subsurface drainage water from intensively cropped mineral and organic soils in Ontario. J Environ Qual 8: 42–48
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (1985) Phosphate and Potash for Rotations. Booklet 2496, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, London, United Kingdom. 13 pp
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (1991) Code of Good Agricultural Practice for the Protection of Water. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, London, United Kingdom. 80pp
Morgan RPC (1992) Soil conservation options in the U.K. Soil Use and Manag 8: 176–180
Mozaffari M and Sims JT (1994) Phosphorus availability and sorption in an Atlantic Coastal Plain watershed dominated by animal-based agriculture. Soil Sci. 157: 97–107
Murphy TJ and Doskey PV (1975) Inputs of phosphorus from precipitation to Lake Michigan. U.S. EPA Report No 600/3-75-005. Duluth, MN
Muscutt AD, Harris GL, Bailey SW and Davies DB (1993) Buffer zones to improve water quality: a review of their potential use in U.K. agriculture. Agric Ecosyst and Environ 45: 59–77
National Rivers Authority (1990) Toxic Blue-green Algae. NRA Water Quality Series No. 2 Peterborough, United Kindgom. 125 pp
Nicholaichuk W and Read DWL (1978) Nutrient runoff from fertilized and unfertilized fields in western Canada. J Environ Qual 7: 542–544
Nicholls KH and MacCrimmon HR (1974) Nutrients in subsurface and runoff waters of the Holland Marsh, Ontario. J Environ Qual 3: 31–35
Olness AE, Smith SJ, Rhoades ED and Menzel RG (1975) Nutrient and sediment discharge from agricultural watersheds in Oklahoma. J Environ Qual 4: 331–336
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (1982) Eutrophication of Waters: Monitoring, Assessment, and Control. OECD Paris, France
Ozanne PG, Kirton DJ and Shaw TC (1961) The loss of phosphorus from sandy soils. Aust J Agric Res 12: 409–423
Palmstrom NS, Carlson RE and Cooke GD (1988) Potential links between eutrophication and formation of carcinogens in drinking water. Lake Reserv Manag 4: 1–15
Peters RH (1981) Phosphorus availability in Lake Memphremagog and its tributaries. Limnol Oceanogr 26: 1150–1161
Ponnamperuma FN (1972) The chemistry of submerged soils. Soil Sci Soc Am Proc 41: 305–310
Porcella DB, Kumazar JS and Middlebrooks EJ (1970) Biological effects on sediment-water nutrient interchange. J Sanit Eng Div Proc Am Soc Civil Eng 96: 911–926
Rast W and Lee GF (1978) Summary analysis of the North American (U.S. Portion) OECD eutrophication project: Nutrient loading - lake response relationships and trophic state indices. EPA 600/3-78-008, U.S. EPA, Corvallis, OR
Romkens MJM and Nelson DW (1974) Phosphorus relationships in runoff from fertilized soil. J Environ Qual 3: 10–13
Rohlich GA and O'Connor DJ (1980) Phosphorus management for the Great Lakes. Final Rep., Phosphorus Management Strategies Task Force. Int Joint Commission (IJC). PLUARG Tech. Rep
Ryden JC, Syers JK and Harris RF (1973) Phosphorus in runoff and streams. Adv Agron 25: 1–45
Ryding SO and Rast W (1989) The Control of Eutrophication of Lakes and Reservoirs. Man and the Biosphere Series, Volume 1. Unexco, Paris and the Parthenon Publishing Group, Paris, France
Ryding SO, Enell M and Wennberg L (1990) Swedish agricultural nonpoint source pollution: A summary of research and findings. Lake and Reserv Manag 6: 207–217
Sawhney BL (1977) Predicting phosphate movement through soil columns. J Environ Qual 6: 86–89
Schindler DW and Nighswander JE (1970) Nutrient supply and primary production in Clear Lake, eastern Ontario. J Fish Res Board Can 27: 260–262
Schreiber JD (1988) Estimating soluble phosphorus (PO4-P) in agricultural runoff. J Miss Acad Sci 33: 1–15
Sharpley AN (1985) The selective erosion of plant nutrients in runoff. Soil Sci Soc Am J 49: 1527–1534
Sharpley AN (1991) Soil phosphorus extracted by ironaluminum-oxide-impregnated filter paper. Soil Sci Soc Am J 55: 1038–1041
Sharpley AN (1993) An innovative approach to estimate bioavailable phosphorus in agricultural runoff using iron oxide-impregnated paper. J Environ Qual 22: 597–601
Sharpley AN and Smith SJ (1994) Wheat tillage and water quality in the Southern Plains. Soil Tillage Res 30: 33–48
Sharpley AN and Syers JK (1979a) Phosphorus inputs into a stream draining an agricultural watershed: II. Amounts and relative significance of runoff types. Water, Air and Soil Pollut 11: 417–428
Sharpley AN and Syers JK (1979b) Loss of nitrogen and phosphorus in tile drainage as influenced by urea application and grazing animals. NZ J Agric Res 22: 127–131
Sharpley AN, Daniel TC and Edwards DR (1993) Phosphorus movement in the landscape. J Prod Agric 6: 492–500
Sharpley AN, Reed LW and Simmons DK (1982) Relationships between available soil phosphorus forms and their role in water quality modeling. Okla Agric Expt Sta Tech Bull T-157. Oklahoma State Univ., Stillwater, OK. 40 pp
Sharpley AN, Tillman RW and Syers JK (1977) Use of laboratory extraction data to predict losses of dissolved inorganic phsophate in surface runoff and tile drainage. J Environ Qual 6: 33–35
Sharpley AN, Smith SJ, Jones OR, Berg WA and Coleman GA (1992) The transport of bioavailable phosphorus in agricultural runoff. J Environ Qual 21: 30–35
Sharpley AN, Chapra SC, Wedepohl R, Sims JT, Daniel TC and Reddy KR (1994) Managing agricultural phsophorus for protection of surface waters: Issues and options. J Environ Qual 23: 437–451
Sherwood MT and Fanning A (1981) Nutrient content of surface runoff water from land treated with animal wastes. pp. 5–17. In Brogan JC (ed) Nitrogen Losses and Surface Runoff from Land Spreading of Manures. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague
Sims JT (1993) Environmental soil testing for phosphorus. J Prod Agric 6: 501–507
Singh BB and Jones JP (1976) Phosphorus sorption and desorption characteristics of soil as affected by organic residues. Soil Sci Soc Am J 40: 389–394
Skinner RJ, Church BM and Kershaw CD (1992) Recent trends in soil pH and nutrient status in England and Wales. Soil Use and Manag 8: 16–20
Smith RV (1976) Nutrient budget of the River Main, Co. Antrim. p. 315–339. In: Agriculture and Water Quality. Tech Bull 32, Ministery of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, London, United Kingdom
Summers, RN, Guise NR and Smirk DD (1993) Bauxite residue (Red Mud) increases phosphorus retention in sandy soil catchments in Western Australia. Fert Res 34: 85–94
Svendsen LM and Kronvang B (1991) Phosphorus in the Nordic counties: Methods, Bioavailability, Effects and Measures. A report by the National Environmental Research Institute, Denmark. In Danish (English summaries). 201 pp
Taylor AW and Kunishi HM (1971) Phosphate equilibria on stream sediment and soil in a watershed draining an agricultural region. J Agric Food Chem 19: 827–831
Tyler DD and Thomas GW (1977) Lysimeter measurements of nitrate and chloride losses from conventional and no-tillage corn. J Environ Qual 6: 63–66
Tunney H (1990) A note on a balance sheet approach to estimating the phosphorus fertilizer needs of agriculture. Irish J Agric Res 29: 149–154
Uhlen G (1981) Surface runoff and the use of farm manure. pp. 34–43. In Logan JC (ed) Nitrogen Losses and Surface Runoff from Land Spreading of Manures. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1990) National water quality inventory. 1988 Report to Congress. Office of Water. U.S. Govt Print Office, Washington, DC
Uunk EJB (1991) Eutrophication of surface waters and the contribution from agriculture. Proceedings of the Fertilizer Society. The Fertilizer Society, Peterborough, United Kingdom. 56 pp
Vighi M and Chiaudani G (1987) Eutrophication in Europe: the role of agricultural activities. pp. 213–257. In Hodgson E (ed) Reviews in Environmental Toxicology 3. Elsevier
Vincent WF and Downes MT (1980) Variation in nutrient removal from a stream by water cress (Nasturtium Officinale R. BR.). Aquatic Bot 9: 221–235
Ward JC, O'Connor KF and Wei-Bin G (1990) Phosphorus losses through transfer, runoff and soil erosion. p. 167–183. In: Phosphorus requirements for sustainable agriculture in Asia and Oceania. Int Rice Res Inst, Manila, Philipinnes
White E (1982) Eutrophication in New Zealand lakes. p. 129–136. In: Water in New Zealand's Future. Proc. 4th. National Water Conference, August 24–26, 1982, Auckland. Bieleski Printers Ltd., Hamilton, New Zealand
Wilcock RJ (1986) Agricultural run-off: a source of water pollution in New Zealand. New Zealand J Agric Sci 20: 98–103
Withers PJA (1993) The Significance of Agriculture as a Source of Phosphorus Pollution in Inland and Coastal Waters in the United Kingdom. A report to the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food, London, United Kingdom. 120 pp
Withers PJA, Unwin RJ, Grylls JP and Kane R (1994) Effects of withholding phosphate and potash fertilizer on grain yield of cereals and on plant-available phosphorus and potassium in calcareous soils. European J Agron 3: 1–8
Wolf AM, Baker DE, Pionke HB and Kunishi HM (1985) Soil tests for estimating labile, soluble, and algae-available phosphorus in agricultural soils. J Environ Qual 14: 341–348
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sharpley, A.N., Withers, P.J.A. The environmentally-sound management of agricultural phosphorus. Fertilizer Research 39, 133–146 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00750912
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00750912