Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Trophic factors and central nervous system metastasis

  • Published:
Cancer and Metastasis Reviews Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

To metastasize to the central nervous system (CNS) malignant cells must attach to brain microvessel endothelial cells, respond to brain endothelial cell-derived motility factors, respond to CNS-derived invasion factors and invade the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and finally, respond to CNS survival and growth factors. Trophic factors such as the neurotrophins play an important role in tumor cell invasion into the CNS and in the survival of small numbers of malignant cells under stress conditions. Trophic factors promote BBB invasion by enhancing the production of basement membrane-degrading enzymes in neurotrophin-responsive cells. The expression of certain neurotrophin receptors on brain-metastasic neuroendrocrine cells occurs in relation to their invasive and survival properties. For example, CNS-metastatic melanoma cells respond to particular neurotrophins (nerve growth factor, neurotrophin-2) that can be secreted by normal cells within the CNS. In addition, a paracrine form of transferrin is important in CNS metastasis, and brain-metastatic cells respond to low levels of transferrin and express high levels of transferrin receptors. CNS-metastatic tumor cells can also produce autocrine factors and inhibitors that influence their growth, invasion and survival in the brain. Synthesis of paracrine factors and cytokines may influence the production of trophic factors by normal brain cells adjacent to tumor cells. Moreover, we found increased amounts of neurotrophins in brain tissue at the invasion front of human melanoma tumors in CNS biopsies. Thus the ability to form metastatic colonies in the CNS is dependent on tumor cell responses to trophic factors as well as autocrine and paracrine growth factors and probably other underdescribed factors.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Nicolson GL, Menter D, Herrmann J, Cavanaugh P, Jia L-B, Hamada J, Yun Z, Marchetti D: Tumor metastasis to brain: role of endothelial cells, neutrophins and paracrine growth factors. Crit Rev Oncogenesis 5: 451–471, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  2. Menter DG, Herrmann JL, Nicolson GL: The role of trophic factors and paracrine and autocrine growth factors in brain metastasis. Clin Exp Metastasis 13: 67–88, 1995

    Google Scholar 

  3. Nicolson GL, Menter DG, Herrmann JL, Yun Z, Cavanaugh PG, Marchetti D: Brain metastasis: role of trophic, autocrine and paracrine factors in tumor invasion and colonization of the central nervous system. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol in press, 1995

  4. Steck PA, Nicolson GL: Metastasis to the central nervous system. In: Levine A, Schmidek H (eds) Molecular Genetics of Nervous System Tumors. Wiley and Sons, New York, 1993, pp 371–379

    Google Scholar 

  5. Wright DC, Delaney TF: Treatment of metastatic cancer to the brain. In: DeVita VT, Hellman S, Rosenburg SA (eds) Cancer: principals and practice of oncology. J.B. Lippincott, New York, 1989, pp 2245–2261

    Google Scholar 

  6. Posner JB, Chernik NL: Intracranial metastases from systemic cancer. Adv Neurol 19: 575–587, 1978

    Google Scholar 

  7. Herlyn M, Thurin J, Balaban Get al.: Characteristics of cultured human melanocytes isolated from different stages of tumor progression. Cancer Res 45: 5670–5676, 1985

    Google Scholar 

  8. Albino AP, Davis BM, Nanus DM: Induction of growth factor RNA expression in human malignant melanoma: markers of transformation. Cancer Res 51: 4815–20, 1991

    Google Scholar 

  9. Nicolson GL: Paracrine and autocrine growth mechanisms in tumor metastasis to specific sites with particular emphasis on brain and lung metastasis. Cancer Metastasis Rev 12: 325–343, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  10. Rodeck U, Herlyn M: Growth factors in melanoma. Cancer Metastasis Rev 10: 89–101, 1991

    Google Scholar 

  11. Raff CM: Social controls on cell survival and cell death. Nature 356: 397–400, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  12. Nowell PC: The clonal evolution of tumor cell. Science 194: 23–28, 1976

    Google Scholar 

  13. Raff MC, Barres BA, Burne JFet al.: Programmed cell death and the control of cell survival: lessons from the nervous system. Science 262: 695–700, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  14. Bradshaw RA, Blundell TL, Lapatto R, McDonald NQ, Murray RJ: Nerve growth factor revisited. Trends Biochem Sci 18: 48–52, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  15. Barbacid M: Nerve growth factor: a tale of two receptors. Oncogene 8: 2033–2042, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  16. Chao MV: Neurotropin receptors: a window into neuronal differentiation. Neuron 9: 583–59, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  17. Johnson D, Lanahan A, Buck CRet al.: Expression and structure of the human NGF receptor. Cell 47: 545–554, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  18. Maher PA: Nerve growth factor induces protein-tyrosine phosphorylation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85: 6788–6791, 1988

    Google Scholar 

  19. Miyasaka T, Chao MV, Sherline P, Saltiel AR: Nerve growth factor stimulates a protein kinase in PC-12 cells that phosphorylates microtubule-associated protein-2. J Biol Chem 265: 4730–4735, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  20. Ohmichi M, Decker SJ, Saltiel AR: Nerve growth factor stimulates the tyrosine phosphorylation of a 38-kDa protein that specifically associates with the src homology domain of phospholipase C-gamma 1. J Biol Chem 267: 21601–21606, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  21. Meakin SO, Shooter EM: The nerve growth factor family of receptors. Trends Neurosci 15: 323–331, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  22. Saltiel AR, Decker SJ: Cellular mechanisms of signal transduction for neurotrophins. BioEssays 16: 405–411, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  23. Snider WD: Functions of the neurotrophins during nervous system development: what kockouts are teaching us. Cell 77: 627–638, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  24. Halcheim C, Carmeli C, Rosenthal A: Neurotrophin 3 is a mitogen for cultured neural crest cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89: 1661–1665, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  25. Birren SJ, Lo L, Anderson DJ: Sympathetic neuroblasts undergo a developmental switch in trophic dependence. Development 119: 597–610, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  26. DiCicco BE, Friedman WJ, Black IB: NT-3 stimulates sympathetic neuroblast proliferation by promoting precursor survival. Neuron 11: 1101–1111, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  27. Schnell L, Schneider R, Kolbeck R, Barde YA, Schwab ME: Neurotrophin-3 enhances sprouting of corticospinal tract during development and after adult spinal cord lesion. Nature 367: 170–173, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  28. Ernfors P, Lee KF, Kucera J, Jaenisch R: Lack of neurotrophin-3 leads to deficiences in the peripheral nervous system and loss of limb proprioceptive afferents. Cell 77: 503–512, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  29. Klein R, Silos SI, Smeyne RJet al.: Disruption of the neurotrophin-3 receptor gene trkC eliminates la muscle afferents and results in abnormal movements. Nature 368: 249–251, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  30. Klein R, Smeyne RJ, Wurst Wet al.: Targeted disruption of the trkB neurotrophin receptor gene results in nervous system lesions and neonatal death. Cell 75: 113–122, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  31. Ernfors P, Lee KF, Jaenisch R: Mice lacking brain-derived neurotrophic factor develop with sensory deficits. Nature 368: 147–50, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  32. Jones KR, Farinas I, Backus C, Reichardt LF: Targeted disruption of the BDNF gene perturbs brain and sensory neuron development but not motor neuron development. Cell 76: 989–799, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  33. Crowley C, Spencer SD, Nishimura MCet al.: Mice lacking nerve growth factor display perinatal loss of sensory and sympathetic neurons yet develop basal forebrain cholinergic neurons. Cell 76: 1001–1011, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  34. Smeyne RJ, Klein R, Schnapp Aet al.: Severe sensory and sympathetic neuropathies in mice carrying a disrupted Trk/NGF receptor gene. Nature 368: 246–249, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  35. Buchman VL, Davies AM: Different neurotrophins are expressed and act in a developmental sequence to promote the survival of embryonic sensory neurons. Development 118: 989–1001, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  36. Yaar M, Gilchrest BA: Human melanocyte growth and differentiation: A decade of new data. J Invest Dermatol 97: 611–617, 1991

    Google Scholar 

  37. Ross AH, Grob P, Bothwell Met al.: Characterization of nerve growth factor receptor in neural crest tumors using monoclonal antibodies. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 81: 6681–6685, 1984

    Google Scholar 

  38. Menter DG, Herrmann JL, Marchetti D, Nicholson GL: Involvement of neurotrophins and growth factors in brain metastasis formation. Invasion Metastasis 14: 372–384, 1995

    Google Scholar 

  39. Marchetti D, McCutcheon IE, Ross MJ, Nicholson GL: Inverse expression of neurotrophins and neurotrophin receptors at the invasion front of human melanoma brain metastases. Int J Oncol 7: 00–00, 1995

    Google Scholar 

  40. Herrmann JL, Menter DG, Hamada J, Nicolson GL: Mediation of NGF-stimulated extracellular matrix invasion by the human melanoma low-affinity p75 neurotrophin receptor: melanoma p75 functions independently oftrkA. Mol Biol Cell 4: 1205–1216, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  41. Verdi JM, Birren SJ, Ibanez CFet al.: p75LNGFR regulates Trk signal transduction and NGF-induced neuronal differentiation in MAH cells. Neuron 12: 733–745, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  42. Rabizadeh S, Oh J, Zhong LTet al.: Induction of apoptosis by the low-affinity NGF receptor. Science 261: 345–348, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  43. Kannan Y, Usami K, Okada M, Shimizu S, Matsuda H: Nerve growth factor suppresses apoptosis of murine neutrophils. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 186: 1050–1056, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  44. Beutler B, van Huffel C: Unraveling function in the TNF ligand and receptor families. Science 667–668, 1994

  45. Smith CA, Farrah T, Goodwin RG: The TNF receptor superfamily of cellular and viral proteins: activation, costimulation, and death. Cell 76: 959–962, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  46. Barrett GL, Bartlett PF: The p75 nerve growth factor receptor mediates survival or death depending on stage of sensory neuron development. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91: 6501–6505, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  47. Ishikawa M, Dennis JW, Man S, Kerbel RS: Isolation and characterization of spontaneous wheat germ agglutinin-resistant human melanoma mutants displaying remarkably different metastatic profiles in nude mice. Cancer Res 48: 665–670, 1988

    Google Scholar 

  48. Marchetti D, Menter D, Jin L, Nakajima M, Nicholson GL: Nerve growth factor effects on human and mouse melanoma cell invasion and heparanase production. Int J Cancer 55: 692–699, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  49. Morse HG, Gonzalez R, Moore GE, Robinson WA: Preferential chromosome 11 q and or 17 q aberrations in shortterm cultures of the metastatic melanoma resections from the brain. Cancer Genet Cytogenet 64: 118–126, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  50. Lee KF, Li E, Huber LJet al.: Targeted mutation of the gene encoding the low affinity NGF receptor p75 leads to deficits in the peripheral sensory nervous system. Cell 69: 737–749, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  51. Lee KF, Bachman K, Landis S, Jaenisch R: dependence on p75 for innervation of some sympathetic targets. Science 263: 1447–1449, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  52. Hempstead BL, Martin ZD, Kaplan DR, parada LF, Chao MV: High-affinity NGF binding requires coexpression of the trk proto-oncogene and the low-affinity NGF receptor. Nature 350: 678–683, 1991

    Google Scholar 

  53. Hempstead BL, Schleifer LS, Chao MV: Expression of functional nerve growth factor receptors after gene transfer. Science 243: 373–375, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  54. Berg MM, Sternberg DW, Hempstead BL, Chap MV: The low affinity p75 nerve growth factor (NGF) receptor mediates NGF-induced tyrosine phosphorylation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88: 7106–7110, 1991

    Google Scholar 

  55. von Bartheld CS, Kinoshita Y, Prevette Det al.: Positive and negative effects of neurotrophins on the isthmo-optic nucleus in chick embryos. Neuron 12: 639–654, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  56. Meakin SO, Shooter EM: Molecular investigations on the high-affinity nerve growth factor receptor. Neuron 6: 153–163, 1991

    Google Scholar 

  57. Weskamp G, Reinhardt LF: Evidence that biological activity of NGF is mediated through a novel subclass of high affinity receptors. Neuron 6: 649–663, 1991

    Google Scholar 

  58. Barker PA, Shooter EM: Disruption of NGF binding to the low-affinity neurotrophin receptor p75LNTR reduces NGF binding to TrkA on PC12 cells. Neuron 13: 203–215, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  59. Feinstein DL, Larhammar D: Identification of a conserved protein motif in a group of growth factor receptors. FEBS Lett 272: 7–11, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  60. Knipper M, Beck A, Rylett J, Breer H: Neurotrophin induces cAMP and IP3 responses in PC12 cells. Different pathways. Febs Lett 324: 147–152, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  61. Hempstead BL, Patil N, Thiel B, Chao MV: Deletion of cytoplasmic sequences of the nerve growth factor receptor leads to loss of high affinity ligand binding. J Biol Chem 265: 9595–9598, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  62. Volonte C, Ross AH, Greene LA: Association of a purineanalogue-sensitive protein kinase activity with p75 nerve growth factor receptors. Mol Biol Cell 4: 71–78, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  63. Volonte C, Greene LA: Induction of ornithine decarbozylase by nerve growth factor in PC12 cells: dissection by purine analogues. J Biol Chem 265: 11050–11055, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  64. Rozakis-Adcock M, McGlade J, Mbamalu Get al.: Association of the Shc and Grb2/Sem5 SH2-containing proteins is implicated in activation of the Ras pathway by tyrosine kinases. Nature 360: 689–692, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  65. Obermeier A, Lammers R, Weismuller KHet al.: Identification of Trk binding sites for SHC and phosphatidylinositol 3′-kinase and formation of a multimeric signaling complex. J Biol Chem 268: 22963–22966, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  66. Borello MG, Pelicci G, Arighi Eet al.: The oncogenic versions of the Ret and Trk tyrosine kinases bind Shc and Grb2 adaptor proteins. Oncogene 9: 1661–1668, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  67. Ohmichi M, Matuoka K, Takenawa T, Saltiel AR: Growth factors differentially stimulate the phosphorylation of Shc proteins and their association with Grb2 in PC-12 pheochromocytoma cells. J Biol Chem 269: 1143–1148, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  68. Stephens RM, Loeb DM, Copeland TDet al.: Trk receptors use redundant signal transduction pathways involving SHC and PLC-gamma 1 to mediate NGF responses. Neuron 12: 691–705, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  69. Satoh T, Nakafuku M, Kaziro Y: Function of Ras as a molecular switch in signal transduction. J Biol Chem 267: 24149–24152, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  70. Avruch J, Zhang X, Kyriakis JM: Raf meets Ras: completing the signal transduction pathway. Trends Biochem Sci 19: 279–283, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  71. Batistatou A, Volonte C, Greene LA: Nerve growth factor employs multiple pathways to induce primary response genes in PC12 cells. Mol Biol Cell 3: 363–371, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  72. Taylor LK, Swanson KD, Kerigan J, Mobley W, Landreth GE: Isolation and characterization of a nerve growth factor-regulated Fos kinase from PC12 cells. J Biol Chem 269: 308–318, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  73. Lange-Carter CA, Johnson GL: Ras-dependent growth factor regulation of MEK kinase in PC12 cells. Science 265: 1458–1461, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  74. Stokoe D, Macdonald SG, Cadwallader K, Symons M, Hancock JF: Activation of Raf as a result of recruitment to the plasma membrane. Science 264: 1463–1467, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  75. Leevers SJ, Paterson HF, Marshall CJ: Requirement for Ras in Raf activation is overcome by targeting Raf to the plasma membrane. Nature 369: 411–414, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  76. Wartmann M, Davis RJ: The native structure of the activated Raf protein kinase is a membrane-bound multi-subunit complex. J Biol Chem 269: 6695–6701, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  77. Volente C, Angelastro JM, Greene LA: Association of protein kinase ERK1 and ERK2 with p75 nerve growth factor receptors. J Biol Chem 268: 21410–21415, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  78. Ohmichi M, Pang L, Decker SJ, Saltiel AR, 1992. Nerve growth factor stimulates the activities of the raf-1 and the mitogen-activated protein kinases via the trk protooncogene. J Biol Chem 267: 14604–14610, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  79. Dobrowsky RT, Werner MH, Castellino AM, Chao MV, Hannun YA: Activation of the sphyngomyelin cycle through the low-affinity neurotrophin receptor. Science 265: 1596–1599, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  80. Wolff RA, Dobrowsky RT, Bielawaska A, Obeid LM, Hannun YA: 1994: Role of ceramide-activated protein phosphatase in ceramide-mediated signal transduction. J Biol Chem 269: 19605–19609, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  81. Nicolson GL, Nakajima M, Hermann JL, Menter DG, Cavanaugh PG, Park JS, Marchetti D: Malignant melanoma metastasis to brain: role of degradative enzymes and responses to paracrine growth factors. J Neuro-Oncol 18: 139–149, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  82. Buxser S, Puma P, Johnson GL: Properties of the nerve growth factor receptor. Relationship between receptor structure and affinity. J Biol Chem 260: 1917–1926, 1985

    Google Scholar 

  83. Nicolson GL: Cancer progression and growth: Relationship of paracrine and autocrine growth mechanisms to organ preference of metastasis. Exp Cell Res 204: 171–180, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  84. Cavanaugh PG, Nicolson GL: Purification and some properties of lung-derived growth factor that differentially stimulates the growth of tumor cells metastatic to the lung. Cancer Res 89: 3928–3933, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  85. Cavanaugh PG, Nicolson GL: Lung-derived growth factor for lung-metastasizing tumor cells: identification as a transferrin. J Cell Biochem 47: 261–267, 1991

    Google Scholar 

  86. Jia LB, Cavanaugh PG, Nicolson GL: Paracrine growth factors for metastatic breast cancer cells: cloning of three new transferrin-like growth factor cDNAs that may be involved in the growth stimulation of breast cancer cells at secondary sites. Proc Am Assoc Cancer Res 35: 44, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  87. Inoue T, Cavanaugh PG, Steck PA, Brunner N, Nicolson GL: Differences in transferrin respons and numbers of transferrin receptors in rat and human mammary carcinoma lines of different metastatic potentials. J Cell Physiol 156: 212–217, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  88. Nicolson GL, Inoue T, Van Pelt C, Cavanaugh PG: Differential expression of a Mr 90,000 cell surface transferrin-related glycoprotein on murine B16 metastatic melanoma sublines selected for enhanced brain or ovary colonization. Cancer Res 50: 515–520, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  89. Mescher AL, Muniam SI: Transferrin and the growth-promoting effect of nerves. Int Rev Cytol 110: 1–26, 1988

    Google Scholar 

  90. Connor JR, Menzies SL, StMartin SM, Mufson EJ: Cellular distribution of transferrin, ferritin, and iron in normal and aged human brains. J Neurosci Res 27: 595–611, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  91. Constam DB, J.P. Malipiero UVet al.: Differential expression of transforming growth factor-beta 1, -beta 2, and -beta 3 by glioblastoma cells, astrocytes, and microglia. J Immunol 148: 1404–1410, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  92. Morris CM, Candy JM, Bloxham CA, Edwardson JA: Immunocytochemical localisation of transferrin in the human brain. Acta Anat (Basel) 143: 14–18, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  93. Oh YJ, Markelonis GJ, Oh TH: Effects of interleukin-1 beta and tumor necrosis factor-alpha on the expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein and transferrin in cultured astrocytes. Glia 8: 77–86, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  94. Orita T, Akimura T, Nishizaki Tet al.: Transferrin receptors in injured brain. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 79: 686–688, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  95. Hunter KE, B. SM, M. DA: Transforming growth factor-β inhibit mitogen-stimulated proliferation of astrocytes. Glia 7: 203–11, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  96. Fressinaud C, P.L., G.L., Durand J, Vallat JM: The proliferation of mature oligodendrocytesin vitro is stimulated by basic fibroblast growth factor and inhibited by oligoden-drocyte-type 2 astrocyte precursors. Dev Biol 158: 317–29, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  97. Merrill JE: Tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-1 and related cytokines in brain development: normal and pathological. Dev Neurosci 14: 1–10, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  98. Matsuda S, H.F., S.I., N.O., Sakanaka M: Immunoelectron microscopic localization of basic FGF in neuroglias and neurons of the trigeminal mesencephalic and motor nuclei. Okajimas Folia Anat (Japan) 69: 335–43, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  99. Alvarez JA, Baird A, Tatum Aet al.: Localization of basic fibroblast growth factor and vascular endothelial growth factor in human glial neoplasms. Mod Pathol 5: 303–307, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  100. Fabry Z, M. FK, Herlein JAet al.: Production of the cytokines interleukin 1 and 6 by murine brain microvessel endothelium and smooth muscle pericytes. J Neuroimmunol 47: 23–34, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  101. Hamada J-I, Cavanaugh PG, Lotan O, Nicolson GL: Separable growth and migration factors for large-cell lymphoma cells secreted by microvascular endothelial cells derived from target organs for metastasis. Br J Cancer 66: 349–354, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  102. Lindholm D, Hengerer B, Zafra F, H.T.: Transforming growth factor-β1 stimulated expression of nerve growth factor in the rat CNS. Neuroreport 1: 9–12, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  103. Lindholm D, Castren E, Kiefer R, Zafra F, Thoenen H: Transforming growth factor-beta 1 in the rat brain: increase after injury and inhibition of astrocyte proliferation. J Cell Biol 117: 395–400, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  104. Takamitsu F, Fan D, Staroselsky AH, Fidler IJ: Critical factors regulating site-specific brain metastasis of murine melanomas. Into J Oncol 3: 789–799, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  105. Yoshida K, Gage FH: Fibroblast growth factors stimulate nerve growth factor synthesis and secretion by astrocytes. Brain Res 538: 118–126, 1991

    Google Scholar 

  106. Yoshida K, Kakihana M, Chen LSet al.: Cytokine regulation of nerve growth factor-mediated cholinergic neurotrophic activity synthesized by astrocytes and fibroblasts. J Neurochem 59: 919–31, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  107. Onto T, H.S., T.K., Okumoto T, Miyamoto K: Stimulation of biosynthesis of nerve growth factor by acidic fibroblast growth factor in cultured mouse astrocytes. Neurosci Lett 126: 18–20, 1991

    Google Scholar 

  108. Yoshida K, Gage FH: Cooperative regulation of nerve growth factor synthesis and secretion in fibroblasts and astrocytes by fibroblast growth factor and other cytokines. Brain Res 569: 14–25, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  109. Yoshida T, Takeuchi M: Establishment of an astrocyte progenitor cell line: induction of glial fibrillary acidic protein and fibronectin by transforming growth factor-beta 1. J Neurosci Res 35: 129–137, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  110. Menter DG, Herrmann JL, Nicolson GL: The metastatic melanoma neurotrophin receptor (p75) is a cell survival (menocytosis) receptor. Clin Exp Metastasis 12: 82a, 1994

  111. Sawada M, A. S, Marunouchi T: TNF alpha induces IL-6 production by astrocytes but not by microglia. Brain Res 583: 296–299, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  112. Lu C, F V, M S, Kerbel R: Interleukin 6: a fibroblast-derived growth inhibitor of human melanoma cells from early but not advanced stages of tumor progression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89: 9215–9219, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  113. Norenberg MD: Astrocyte responses to CNS injury. J Neuropath Exp Neurol 53: 213–220, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  114. Wilken GP, Marriot DR, Chlolewinski AJ: Astrocyte heterogeneity. Trends Neurosci 13: 43–46, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  115. Kimelberg HK, Ransom BR: Physiological aspects of astrocyte swelling. In: Federoff S, Verandakis A (eds)Astrocytes, 129–166, Orlando, Academic Press, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  116. Lantos PL, Luthert PJ, Deane BR: Vascular permeability and cerebral oedema in experimental brain tumors. In: Inaba Y, Klatzo I, Spatz M (eds)Brain edema, 40–47, New York, Springer-Verlag, 1984

    Google Scholar 

  117. Klatzo I, Chui E, Fujiwara K, Spatz M: Resolution of vasogenic brain edema (VBE). Adv Neurol 28: 359–373, 1980

    Google Scholar 

  118. Frank E, Pulver M, DeTribolet N: Expression of class II major histocompatibility antigens on reactive astrocytes and endothelial cells within gliosis surrounding metastases and abscesses. J Neuroimmunol 12: 29–36, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  119. Kristt DA, Reedy E, Yarden Y: receptor tyrosine kinase expression in astrocytic lesions: similar features in gliosis and glioma. Neurosurg 33: 106–115, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  120. Mbikay M, Seidah NG, Chretien M: From proopiomelanocortin to cancer, possible role of converases in neoplasia. In: Vaudry H, Eberle AN (eds) The Melanotropic Peptides, 13–19, New York, Ann NY Acad Sci, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  121. Jegou S, Blasquez C, Delbende C, Bunel DT, Vaudry H: Regulation of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone release from hypothalmic neurons. In: Vaudry H, Eberle AN (eds) The Melanotropic Peptides, 260–278, New York, Ann NY Acad Sci, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  122. Banks WA, Kastin AJ: Bidirectional passage of peptides across the blood brain barrier. Prog Brain Res 91: 139–148, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  123. Eberle AN, Siegrist W, Bagutti Cet al.: Receptors for melanocyte stimulating hormone on melanoma cells. In: Vaudry H, Eberle AN (eds) The Melanotropic Peptides, 320–341, New York, Ann NY Acad Sci, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  124. Kameyama K, Vieira WD, Tsukamoto K, Law LW, Hearing VJ: Differentiation and the tumorigenic and metastatic phenotype of murine melanoma cells. Int J Cancer 45: 1151–1158, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  125. Bennett DC, Holmes A, Devlin L, Hart IR: Experimental metastasis and differentiation of murine melanoma cells: actions and interactions of factors affecting different intracellular signaling pathways. Clin Exp Metastasis 12: 385–397, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  126. Hiltz ME, Catania A, Lipton JM: Alpha-MSH peotides inhibit acute inflammation induced in mice by rIL-1 beta, rIL-6, rTNF-alpha and endogenous pyrogen but not that caused by LTB-4, PAF and rIL-8. Cytokine 4: 320–328, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  127. Ceriani G, Macaluso A, Catania A, Lipton JM: Central neurogenic anti-inflammatory action of alpha-MSH: modulation of peripheral inflammation induced by cytokines and other mediators of inflammation. Neuroendocrinol 59: 138–143, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  128. Granholm A, Biddle P, Backman C, Ebendal T, Gerhardt G, Hoffer B: Peripheral administration of nerve growth factor to an anti-transferrin receptor antibody increases cholenergic neuron survival in intraacocular forebrain transplants. In: Flanagan T, Emerich D, Winn S (eds) Methods in Neurosciences, vol. 21: Providing Pharmacological Access to the Brain, San Diego, CA, Academic Press, 1994

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Tumor Biology (108), The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Blvd., Box 108, 77030, Houston, Texas, USA

    Garth L. Nicolson & David G. Menter

Authors
  1. Garth L. Nicolson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. David G. Menter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Nicolson, G.L., Menter, D.G. Trophic factors and central nervous system metastasis. Cancer Metast Rev 14, 303–321 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00690600

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00690600

Key words

Search

Navigation