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Dominant exudative vitreoretinopathy and other vascular developmental disorders of the peripheral retina

Dominante exsudatieve vitreoretinopathie en andere vasculaire ontwikkelingsstoornissen van de perifere retina

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Summary

Chapters 1 and 2

The vascular development of the normal human neuroretina is a process which occurs surprisingly late in the course of foetal life, and is not quite complete even at birth. Vascularization of the peripheral retina, particularly in the temporal half of the fundus, does not take place until the final months of the intra-uterine period. This implies that vascular developmental disorders in this part of the retina have a late foetal pathogenesis.

Contact lens biomicroscopy and fluorescein angiography are by far the most important methods of investigation to demonstrate vascular anomalies in the peripheral fundus. The possibilities of these techniques are limited by optical factors. Interpretation of vascular anomalies on a fluorescein angiogram of the peripheral fundus is impeded by optical artefacts and variations in the vascular configuration of the retina and choroid which occur in this part of the fundus in normal eyes.

Chapters 3–6

Only in the past decade have investigators become more familiar with the clinical features of dominant exudative vitreoretinopathy (DEVR). Apart from previous publications from our institute (Nijhuis et al., 1979; Van Nouhuys, 1981), only about 60 cases of this condition (in fewer than ten different families) have been reported.

This thesis describes nine families in which DEVR was diagnosed. Some 200 members of these families were ophthalmologically examined by me. Evident symptoms of DEVR were found in 75, and in 12 others the diagnosis was plausible but not certain.

The primary lesion in DEVR is a perfusion disorder of the peripheral retina which manifests itself in the temporal part of the fundus. In uncomplicated cases it is possible to establish the absence of retinal vessels in the area anterior to the temporal equator by contact lens biomicroscopy. The configuration of blood vessels in the retina posterior to the temporal equator is nearly always aberrant: this area usually shows an increased number of vascular ramifications with a strikingly parallel course, while the venous branches are abnormally tortuous. In many cases the stretched course of the temporal retinal vessels in the posterior pole is a conspicuous feature. This phenomenon is often associated with some temporal or inferior temporal ectopia of the macula.

Fluorescein angiography of the temporal fundus periphery as a rule clearly reveals the disturbed perfusion of the retina anterior to the equator in DEVR. A typical characteristic of the condition is abrupt termination of the retinal vasculature in the equatorial zone and fluorescein leakage from a zone of small terminal ramifications which demarcates the non-perfused retinal periphery.

The appearance of these aberrant terminal ramifications of retinal vessels and the configuration of the line of demarcation they form, show a marked similarity to the peripheral zone of incompletely developed retinal vasculature in normal foetal eyes during the final months of the intra-uterine period. This similarity implies that DEVR is based on a disturbance in the development of the retinal vasculature which must have occurred during the final months of the period of gestation. This disturbance has caused the temporal retinal periphery (last to be vascularized in the course of development) to remain avascular in DEVR.

Our study has shown that, in a number of cases, there was no fluorescein leakage from the peripheral ramifications in the temporal equatorial zone of the retina, and that these terminal ramifications formed a less clearly defined continuous zone than they did in most other cases of DEVR. This angiographic variant was mainly encountered in one particular family (the H family), which was also characterized by a high incidence of rhegmatogenous retinal detachment. Both the ophthalmoscopic and the fluorescein-angiographic features of this variant of DEVR are very subtle and inconspicuous, and in my opinion this fact has important diagnostic consequences.

In DEVR, the fluorescein angiogram of the posterior pole often discloses dilatations of macular capillaries in the early phase, and hyperfluorescence of the disc and leakage from capillaries in the centre of the posterior pole in the late phase.

In many eyes the symptoms of DEVR are largely confined to the abovementioned vascular retinal changes. Visual acuity in such eyes is usually good. Of the 144 eyes of persons with evident DEVR, 102 (71%) had a visual acuity of 0.6 or better. This shows that the condition is in most cases compatible with fair-to-good visual function.

Retinal neovascularizations were found only at the demarcation between vascular and avascular retina, but only in a minority of cases. Intraretinal and subretinal exudates of widely varying size were likewise relatively rare (11% of eyes). Various types of pigmentations, whitish degenerative areas in the peripheral retina and atrophic changes of the pigment epithelium and choroid were encountered slightly more frequently.

Vitreous changes of widely varying severity were found in 48% of the eyes examined; in the remaining 52% the vitreous was quite normal. This observation demonstrates that DEVR is not a true vitre oretinopathy, as for example Wagner's syndrome is. The vitreous changes are most likely a complication secondary to the retinal vascular changes. Classification of DEVR among the (vitreoretinal) dystrophies or degenerations is not consistent with the nature of the condition. The most characteristic feature of this group of conditions is gradual progression of the disease symptoms as a result of cell degeneration. Such a progression, however, was not demonstrated in any of our patients on the basis of history or data obtained by examination.

Visual function is determined largely by the presence or absence of complications. In DEVR, two types of complication are mainly responsible for severe visual impairment: amblyopia and retinal detachment.

Amblyopia was found in 11 of the 75 affected family members, and in most cases could be ascribed to anisometropia. The latter anomaly of refraction was quite common, as were myopia and myopic astigmatism.

Retinal detachment in DEVR can be due to traction exerted by vitreous membranes, formation of subretinal exudates, or the presence of retinal ruptures. The latter (rhegmatogenous) type of retinal detachment can occur as a result of large ruptures caused by traction, but also as a result of very small atrophic defects which are usually localized in the avascular part of the retina.

The fact that it is in particular the abovementioned complications that determine the prognosis, opens some perspectives for preventive and curative measures in cases of DEVR. In the vast majority of cases the complications develop before age 20, and the most severe forms of tractional retinal detachment were in fact found in patients younger than 10 years. This is why ophthalmological examination of young children in families with DEVR is very important.

The histopathological features of DEVR have been recently described. One of the persons I examined had been submitted to enucleation of one eye shortly after birth. The microscopic features of this eye were consistent with a terminal stage of a proliferative retinopathy.

Penetrance of the DEVR gene was found to be very high. Using the diagnostic methods described, I found a gene penetrance of about 90%. The gene is also characterized by very variable expression. It is probable that this variability is largely caused by non-genetic factors.

The mechanism by which the DEVR gene effects the disturbance in retinal vasculogenesis has so far remained obscure. General symptoms possibly related to the ocular changes have not been found.

The deformation of the vasculature of the posterior pole and periphery of the retina, and the often observed macular ectopia, cannot be explained in less severe cases of DEVR by traction resulting from the presence of cicatricial tissue. A hypothesis is advanced which explains these phenomena as direct consequence of the vascular developmental disorder.

The ophthalmological literature includes numerous descriptions of patients whose symptoms are suggestive of DEVR. Such cases are often reported in descriptive diagnostic terms such as macular ectopia or pseudoglioma, or by diagnoses whose correctness seems dubious, e.g. (familial) Coats' disease, (familial) persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous (PHPV) and retrolental fibroplasia (RLF). There are numerous case reports on congenital retinal fold (ablatio falciformis congenita) in which the descriptions of the fundus changes tally exactly with the falciform retinal folds found in several of our patients.

Chapter 7

Congenital retinal fold (ablatio falciformis congenita) is a fundus anomaly which can be found in several diseases. DEVR is the primary possibility to be taken into account in patients with unilateral or bilateral congenital retinal folds who show no general symptoms and have no record of neonatal oxygen administration.

In most cases, and certainly in DEVR, a congenital retinal fold is not formed until the final months of the intra-uterine period, and is a result of a retinal vascular developmental disorder.

Chapter 8

The symptoms of cicatricial RLF seem to differ hardly, if at all, from those of DEVR. Differential diagnosis between the two conditions is therefore based entirely on the neonatal history and on ophthalmological examination of a patient's family members.

The clinical symptoms are so similar that RLF can be described as a phenocopy of DEVR. Observations on neonates with DEVR have not been sufficiently numerous to establish with certainty whether, like RLF, the condition shows an acute phase.

There are numerous reports on RLF in children not given oxygen administration during the postnatal period. Since most of these publications make no mention of opthalmological examination of near relatives it is possible - and in fact probable - that some of these cases represent manifestations of DEVR.

It has not been established with certainty whether neonates who possess the gene of DEVR run an increased risk at neonatal oxygen administration. This question merits further investigation.

Chapter 9

Several syndromes are known to be associated with congenital organizations in the vitreous space and retinal detachment.

In mild manifestations of incontinentia pigmenti (Bloch-Sulzberger syndrome) there are fluorescein-angiographic changes which suggest disturbed vascularization of the peripheral retina. The fact that the acute symptoms of this syndrome develop in the perinatal period supports the postulate of a disturbance in the late phase of development of the retinal vasculature. Unlike DEVR, this syndrome also involves occlusive changes in the retinal vessels of the posterior pole of the fundus. Severe manifestations of the syndrome - e.g. proliferations in the vitreous space and retinal detachment - are probably caused by peripheral neovascularizations from the retina.

Norrie's disease is associated with congenital proliferative changes in the vitreous and retinal detachment. The ocular symptoms of this disease closely resemble those in severe cases of DEVR. It seems quite possible that the symptoms of Norrie's disease may likewise result from a congenital developmental disorder of the retinal vasculature with secondary neovascularization. This hypothesis is supported by the absence of changes suggestive of an early developmental disorder.

Some cerebral anomalies such as microcephaly and hydrocephalus can be associated with ocular symptoms which closely resemble those of RLF and DEVR, and indicate disturbed retinal vascularization. In describing patients with this syndrome, the old term “encephalo-ophthalmic dysplasia” can continue to be used for the time being, although the fundus changes are not based on primary dysplasia of the nerve tissue of the retina.

Unmistakable evidence of disturbed vasculogenesis of the peripheral retina has been found in some neonates with anencephalia. Histological examination of eyes of such neonates by several investigators has demonstrated avascularity of the peripheral retina and neovascularizations in the most peripheral zone of retinal vessels.

In the syndrome described by Reese, Blodi and Straatsma, which in most cases is probably based on trisomy 13, severe changes in the vitreous space have been frequently found at histological examination. These changes may well be a result of a congenital proliferative retinopathy. The syndrome also includes symptoms which indicate an early disorder of foetal development.

Chapters 10–12

In several patients with Wagner's syndrome I found fluorescein-angiographic changes in the equatorial region of the fundus which unmistakably suggested disturbed development of retinal vessels in this region. The cause of the disorder seems to lie not so much in the foetal vessels themselves as in the presence of sharply defined areas of dysplasia in choroid, pigmented layer and neuroretina, which have impaired the development of retinal vessels. It seems quite likely that the aberrant configuration of blood vessels in the central retina and the nasal macular ectopia found in some patients with Wagner's syndrome result from this impairment of retinal vascular development in the equatorial zone.

Sex-linked juvenile retinoschisis is associated in incidental cases with symptoms that could be interpreted as indicating a developmental disorder of peripheral retinal vessels. This disorder may have been caused by retinoschisis occurring before completion of retinal vascular development. There are no indications that vascular changes play a role in the aetiology of the retinoschisis in this condition.

Another relatively rare phenomenon in sex-linked juvenile retinoschisis is deformation of retinal vessels in and around the posterior pole and macula ectopia.

There are several reports on fluorescein-angiographic changes of the peripheral retinal vasculature found in usually young persons with non-traumatic rhegmatogenous retinal detachment. The vascular changes described in some of these publications are undoubtedly suggestive of a primary disorder in the vasculogenesis of the peripheral retina, and more specifically DEVR, can play a role in the pathogenesis of rhegmatogenous retinal detachment.

Congenital bilateral arterial anastomosis between the peripheral choroid and retina is a rare vascular malformation. This anastomosis, previously described by Van Nouhuys and Deutman (1980), is probably based on continued growth of a recurrent ciliary artery into the retina through a small colobomatous defect in Bruch's membrane and the retinal pigment epithelium.

Coats' disease and retinal angiomatosis can both be regarded as disorders of retinal vascular development, although it is usually impossible to establish the congenital presence of the lesions. Both conditions can ophthalmoscopically resemble forms of DEVR which are associated with extensive intraretinal and subretinal exudates. Coats' disease differs from DEVR in that hereditary factors are absent, as demonstrated by the case history of monozygotic twins of whom only one child proved to be (bilaterally) affected.

Chapters 13 and 14

Several conditions not associated with disturbances in the foetal vasculogenesis of the retina can pose problems of differential diagnosis from DEVR.

Persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous (PHPV) is a condition in which it is uncertain which clinical manifestations may occur in the posterior vitreous space. The hypothesis that a congenital retinal fold as a rule results from persistence of elements of the primary vitreous is untenable.

Our study has shown that DEVR, if associated with large chorioretinal cicatrices, can easily be mistaken for a condition resulting from congenital toxoplasmosis.

Of the acquired disorders of the peripheral retinal circulation, only Eales' disease and sickle cell retinopathy are briefly discussed. The principal difference between such occlusive retinopathies and conditions based on disturbed vascular development, such as DEVR, is the absence of a regular zone of underdeveloped peripheral capillaries in the angiogram, and the absence of distinct deformation of the retinal vasculature.

A few other acquired conditions such as ocular toxocariasis, pars planitis, and vascular retinal changes associated with myopia may lead to confusion with the symptoms of DEVR.

Samenvatting

Hoofdstuk 1 en 2

De vasculaire ontwikkeling van de normale menselijke neuroretina is een proces, dat zich wonderlijk laat in het foetale leven voltrekt en zelfs bij de geboorte nog niet geheel is voltooid. Vascularisatie van de perifere retina met name in de temporale helft van de fundus geschiedt pas in de laatste maanden van de intra-uteriene periode. Dit impliceert, dat vasculaire ontwikkelingsstoornissen in dit gedeelte van de retina een laat foetale pathogenese hebben.

Voor het aantonen van vasculaire afwijkingen in de perifere fundus zijn contactglasbiomicroscopie en fluorescentie angiografie veruit de belangrijkste methoden van onderzoek. De mogelijkheden van deze technieken worden beperkt door optische oorzaken. De beoordeling van vasculaire anomalieën op het fluorescentie angiogram van de perifere fundus wordt bemoeilijkt door optische artefacten en variaties in de vaatconfiguratie van retina en chorioidea, die in dit deel van de fundus bij normale ogen voorkomen.

Hoofdstuk 3–6

Dominante exsudatieve vitreoretinopathy (DEVR) is een aandoening, waarvan het klinische beeld pas het laatste decennium enige bekendheid heeft gekregen. Afgezien van eerdere publicaties van ons instituut (Nijhuis et al., 1979; Van Nouhuys, 1981) zijn slechts ongeveer een 60 tal gevallen van de aandoening behorend tot nog geen 10 families onder deze diagnose gerapporteerd.

In deze Studie worden 9 families beschreven, waarin de diagnose DEVR gesteld werd. Ruim 200 leden van deze families werden door mij oogheelkundig onderzocht. Bij 75 van hen werden evidente verschijnselen van DEVR gevonden, terwijl bij 12 anderen de diagnose waarschijnlijk was, doch niet zeker.

De primaire afwijking bij DEVR is een perfusiestoornis van de perifere retina, die zich hoofdzakelijk manifesteert in het temporale deel van de fundus. Door contactglasonderzoek is het bij ongecompliceerde gevallen van de aandoening mogelijk de afwezigheid van retinavaten in het gebied voor de temporale equator vast te stellen. De configuratie van bloedvaten in de retina achter de temporale equator is bijna altijd aberrant: doorgaans zijn een toegenomen aantal vaattakken in deze gebieden gelegen met een opvallend parallel verloop en veelal vertonen de venetakken een abnormale tortuositeit. In de achterpool valt dikwijls net gestrekte verloop van de temporale retinavaten op. Dit verschijnsel gaat vaak gepaard met enige ectopie van de macula naar temporaal of naar temporaalonder.

Fluorescentie angiografie van de temporale periferie van de fundus toont bij DEVR meestal duidelijk de gestoorde perfusie van de retina voor de equator. Typisch voor de aandoening is het abrupte eindigen van het vaatbed van de retina in het equatorgebied en lekkage van fluoresceine uit een zoom van kleine terminale vertakkingen, die de niet geperfundeerde periferie van de retina begrenzen.

Het uiterlijk aspect van deze aberrante terminale vertakkingen van retinavaten alsmede de configuratie van de grenslijn die deze vormen, vertoont grote gelijkenis met de perifere zone van de onvolgroeide retina vasculatuur in normale foetale ogen gedurende de laatste maanden van de intrauteriene periode. Deze overeenkomst duidt erop, dat DEVR berust op een stoornis die in de ontwikkeling moet hebben plaats gevonden. Deze stoornis heeft er toe geleid, dat de temporale retinaperiferie, die het laatst in de ontwikkeling gevasculariseerd wordt, bij DEVR avasculair is gebleven.

Bij ons onderzoek is gebleken, dat bij een aantal gevallen geen lekkage van fluoresceine uit de perifere vertakkingen in de temporale equatorstreek van de retina optrad en dat deze terminale vertakkingen veel minder duidelijk een aaneengesloten zoom vormden dan doorgaans het geval was bij DEVR. Deze angiografische variant werd hoofdzakelijk in één familie (fam. H.) aangetroffen, waarin tevens het frequente vóórkomen van rhegmatogene ablatio retinae opviel. Zowel de ophthalmoscopische als fluorescentieangiografische verschijnselen van deze variant van DEVR zijn zeer onopvallend, hetgeen naar mijn mening belangrijke diagnostische consequenties heeft.

Het fluorescentie angiogram van de achterpool toont bij DEVR dikwijls dilataties van maculaire capillairen in de vroege fase en hyperfluorescentie van de papil en lekkage uit capillairen in het centrum van de achterpool in de late fase.

In veel ogen zijn de verschijnselen van DEVR hoofdzakelijk beperkt tot de hierboven genoemde vasculaire afwijkingen van de retina. De meeste van dergelijke ogen hebben een goede gezichtsscherpte. Van de 144 ogen van personen met zekere DEVR werd bij 102 ogen (71%) een gezichtsscherpte van 0.6 of hoger gevonden. Hieruit blijkt, dat de aandoening in de meeste gevallen compatibel is met een redelijke tot goede visuele functie.

Retinale neovascularisaties werden alleen aangetroffen ter plaatse van de grenszone tussen vasculaire en avasculaire retina, doch kwamen slechts in een minderheid van de gevallen voor. Ook intraretinale en subretinale exsudaten, van zeer uiteenlopende omvang waren betrekkelijk schaars (11%). Wat frequenter werden pigmentaties van verschallende aard, wittige degeneratieve gebieden in de perifere retina en atrofische veranderingen van pigmentblad en choroidea waargenomen.

Glasvochtveranderingen van zeer verschillende ernst waren aanwezig in 48% van de ogen. Bij de overige 52% was het glasvocht geheel normaal. Deze observatie toont aan dat DEVR geen echte vitreoretinopathie is, zoals b.v. het syndroom van Wagner. De glasvochtveranderingen treden naar alle waarschijnlijkheid secundair op aan de vasculaire afwijkingen in de retina. De rangschikking van DEVR onder de (vitreoretinale) dystrofieën of degeneraties is niet in overeenstemming met het karakter van de aandoening. Het meest kenmerkende aspect van deze groep aandoeningen is geleidelijke progressie van de ziekteverschijnselen tengevolge van het te gronde gaan van cellen. Een dergelijk beloop hebben wij echter bij geen van onze patiënten op grond van de anamnese of onderzoek kunnen vaststellen. De visuele functie wordt grotendeels bepaald door het al of niet optreden van complicaties. In hoofdzaak zijn twee soorten complicaties bij DEVR verantwoordelijk voor ernstige visusvermindering: amblyopie en ablatio retinae.

Amblyopie werd bij 11 van de 75 familieleden met onmiskenbare ziekteverschijnselen gevonden en kon in de meeste gevallen toegeschreven worden aan een anisometropie. Deze laatste refractieanomalie kwam frequent voor evenals een myopie of een myoop astigmatisme.

Ablatio retinae kan bij DEVR ontstaan door tractie van glasvochtmembranen, vorming van subretinale exsudaten of door rhegmatogene oorzaak. Dit laatste type netvliesloslating kan optreden als gevolg van grote scheuren onder invloed van tractie, maar ook door het ontstaan van zeer kleine atrofische defectjes, die meestal in het niet gevasculariseerde deel van de retina zijn gelegen.

Het feit, dat het met name de hierboven genoemde complicaties zijn die de prognose bepalen, biedt enige perspectieven voor preventieve en curatieve maatregelen bij patiënten met DEVR. De complicaties treden in veruit de meeste gevallen op voor het 20e jaar, terwijl de meest ernstige vormen van tractionele ablatio retinae zelfs beneden de 10 jarige leeftijd voorkomen. Om deze reden is het herkennen van de aandoening alsmede het verrichten van oogheelkundig onderzoek bij jonge kinderen in families, waarin de ziekte geconstateerd is, van grote betekenis.

De histopathologische afwijkingen van DEVR zijn pas onlangs voor het eerst beschreven. Van één van de door mij onderzochte personen had enucleatie van één oog kort na de geboorte plaats gehad. Het microscopische beeld van dit oog paste bij een eindstadium van een proliferatieve retinopathie.

Het gen van DEVR bleek een hoge penetrantie te hebben. Met onze diagnostiek werd een penetrantie van ongeveer 90% gevonden. Voorts kenmerkt het gen zich door een zeer variabele expressie. Het is waarschijnlijk, dat deze variabiliteit voor een belangrijk deel veroorzaakt wordt door niet genetische factoren.

Langs welke weg het gen van de aandoening de storing in de retinale vasculogenese bewerkstelligt is tot nu toe onbekend. Algemene verschijnselen die een relatie met de oogafwijkingen konden hebben, werden niet gevonden.

De vervorming van het vaatbed van achterpool en periferie van de retina, alsmede de vaak aanwezige ectopie van de macula kan bij minder ernstige gevallen van DEVR niet verklaard worden door tractieverschijnselen tengevolge van littekenweefsel. Een hypothese wordt geboden, waarin deze verschijnselen verklaard worden als direct gevolg van de vasculaire ontwikkelingsstoornis.

In de oogheelkundigeliteratuur komen veel beschrijvingen van ziektegevallen voor, waarvan de verschijnselen suggestief zijn voor DEVR. Dergelijke gevallen zijn vaak aangeduid met descriptieve diagnosen, zoalsectopia maculae, pseudoglioom of met diagnosen, waarvan de juistheid in twijfel getrokken moet worden, zoals: (familiaire) ziekte van Coats, (familiaire) PHPV en RLF. Talrijk zijn de publicaties van gevallen van congenital retinal fold (ablatio falciformis congenita), waarvan de descripties van de fundusafwijkingen exact overeenkomen met de bij verschillende van onze patiënten gevonden falciforme retinaplooien.

Hoofdstuk 7

Congenital retinal fold (ablatio falciformis congenita) is een fundusafwijking die bij verschillende aandoeningen kan voorkomen. Bij patiënten met deze afwijking in één of beide ogen, die geen algemene verschijnselen hebben, en waaraan geen zuurstof in de neonatale periode is toegediend, moet in eerste instantie aan DEVR gedacht worden als oorzaak.

De vorming van een falciforme ablatio retinae geschiedt in de meeste gevallen, en zeker bij DEVR, niet voor de laatste maanden van de intrauteriene periode en is het gevolg van een vasculaire ontwikkelingsstoornis van de retina.

Hoofdstuk 8

De Symptomen van cicatriciële RLF en DEVR lijken niet of nauwelijks te verschillen. De differentiaal diagnose tussen beide aandoeningen berust daarom geheel op de neonatale anamnese en oogheelkundig onderzoek van familieleden van een patient.

De klinische verschijnselen komen dermate overeen, aat gezegd kan worden dat RLF een phenocopie is van DEVR. Er zijn te weinig observaties bij zuigelingen met DEVR verricht om te kunnen vaststellen in hoeverre de aandoening evenals RLF gepaard gaat met een acute fase.

Gevallen van RLF bij kinderen die in de postnatale periode geen extra zuurstof hebben ontvangen zijn herhaaldelijk beschreven. Daar in de meeste van deze publicaties geen melding gemaakt is van oogheelkundig onderzoek van naaste familieleden van de patiënten is het mogelijk, en zelfs waarschijnlijk, dat een aantal van deze gevallen manifestaties zijn geweest van DEVR.

Het staat niet vast of pasgeborenen die het gen van de aandoening bezitten een verhoogd risico lopen bij toediening van extra zuurstof. Dit onderwerp verdient verder onderzoek.

Hoofdstuk 9

Er zijn verschillende syndromen bekend, die gepaard gaan met congenitale organisaties in de glasvochtruimte en ablatio retinae.

Bij lichte manifestaties van incontinentia pigmenti (syndroom van BlochSulzberger) zijn fluorescentieangiografische verschijnselen aanwezig, die suggestief zijn voor een gestoorde vascularisatie van de perifere retina. Het feit, dat de acute verschijnselen van dit syndroom zich in de perinatale periode voordoen, steunt de veronderstelling van een stoornis gedurende de late fase van ontwikkeling van de retinavasculatuur. In tegenstelling tot DEVR komen bij dit syndroom ook occlusieve veranderingen van retinavaten in de achterpool van de fundus voor. Ernstige manifestaties van het syndroom, zoals proliferaties in de glasvochtruimte en netvliesloslating worden zeer waarschijnlijk veroorzaakt door perifere neovascularisaties vanuit de retina.

De ziekte van Norrie gaat gepaard met congenitale proliferatieve veranderingen in het glasvocht en netvliesloslating. De verschijnselen van de aandoening lijken sterk op die van ernstige gevallen van DEVR. De mogelijkheid dat de Symptomen van de ziekte van Norrie eveneens het gevolg zijn van een congenitale ontwikkelingsstoornis van de retinavasculatuur met secundaire neovascularisatie lijkt niet gering. Deze veronderstelling wordt gesteund door het ontbreken van afwijkingen, die op een vroege ontwikkelingsstoornis dulden.

Sommige cerebrale afwijkingen, zoals microcephalie en hydrocephalie kunnen gepaard gaan met oogsymptomen, die grote overeenkomsten vertonen met RLF en DEVR en die duiden op een gestoorde vascularisatie van de retina. Voor de aanduiding van gevallen die tot dit syndroom behoren kan de oude benaming “encephalo-ophthalmic dysplasia” voorlopig gehandhaafd worden, hoewel de fundusafwijkingen niet op een primaire dysplasia van het zenuwweefsel van de retina berusten.

Duidelijke verschijnselen van een storing van de vasculogenese van de perifere retina zijn waargenomen bij sommige pasgeborenen met anencephalie. Histologisch onderzoek van ogen van dergelijke kinderen is door verschillende onderzoekers verricht en heeft avasculariteit van de perifere retina aangetoond en neovascularisaties ter plaatse van de meest perifere zone van retinavaten.

Bij het door Reese, Blodi en Straatsma beschreven syndroom, dat waarschijnlijk in de meeste gevallen berust op trisomie van chromosoom 13, zijn ernstige veranderingen in de glasvochtruimte frequent histologisch waargenomen. Het is mogelijk, dat deze verschijnselen het gevolg zijn vaan een congenitale proliferatieve retinopathie. Bij het syndroom komen ook Symptomen voor die duiden op een vroege stoornis in de foetale ontwikkeling.

Hoofdstuk 10–12

Bij verschillende patiënten met het syndroom van Wagner werden door ons duidelijke fluorescentieangiografische afwijkingen in de equatoriale gebieden van de fundus gevonden, die duidden op een gestoorde ontwikkeling van retinavaten in dit gebied. De oorzaak van deze stoornis lijkt niet in de foetale vaten zelf gelegen, doch in die aanwezigheid van scherp begrensde arealen, die een dysplasie vertonen van chorioidea, pigmentblad en neuroretina en die een belemmering gevormd hebben voor de ontwikkeling van retinale vaten. Het is waarschijnlijk, dat de aberrante configuratie van bloedvaten in de centrale retina alsmede de nasale ectopie, die bij sommige patiënten met bet syndroom van Wagner voorkomt, het gevolg zijn van genoemde belemmering van de ontwikkeling van retinavaten in de equatoriale gebieden.

Geslachtsgebonden juveniele retinoschisis gaat in incidentele gevallen gepaard met verschijnselen, die geduid kunnen worden als een ontwikkelingsstoornis van perifere retinavaten. Het is mogelijk, dat deze stoornissen veroorzaakt zijn door een vroeg opgetreden retinoschisis voor de voltooiing van de retinale vaatontwikkeling. Er zijn geen aanwijzingen dat vasculaire afwijkingen een etiologische rol spelen bij het tot stand komen van de retinoschisis bij deze aandoening.

Een ander eveneens betrekkelijk zeldzaam fenomeen bij geslachtsgebonden juveniele retinoschisis is de deformatie van retinavaten in en om de achterpool en ectopie van de macula.

In verschillende publicaties zijn fluorescentieangiografische afwijkingen van de perifere retinavasculatuur getoond bij meestal jeugdige personen met een niet traumatische, rhegmatogene ablatio retinae. De vasculaire verschijnselen in enkele van deze publicaties duiden zonder twijfel op een primaire storing in de vasculogenese van de perifere retina en zijn niet te onderscheiden van de angiografische Symptomen van DEVR. Dergelijke studies verlenen steun aan het concept, dat vasculaire ontwikkelingsstoornissen van de perifere retina, en met name DEVR, een rol kunnen spelen bij de pathogenese van rhegmatogene ablatio retinae.

Een zeldzame vasculaire misvorming is de congenitale bilaterale arteriële anastomose tussen perifere chorioidea en retina. Deze anastomose, die eerder beschreven is (Van Nouhuys en Deutman, 1980) berust waarschijnlijk op een doorgroei van een arteria ciliaris recurrens naar de retina door een klein colobomateus defect van de membraan van Bruch en retinale pigmentblad.

De ziekte van Coats en angiomatosis retinae zijn beide te beschouwen als vasculaire ontwikkelingsstoornissen van de retina, hoewel doorgaans niet vast te stellen is in hoeverre de lesies congenitaal aanwezig zijn geweest. Beide aandoeningen kunnen ophthalmoscopische gelijkenis vertonen met vormen van DEVR, die gepaard gaan met uitgebreide intra en subretinale exsudaten. In tegenstelling tot DEVR ontbreken bij de ziekte van Coats erfelijke factoren, hetgeen gedemonsteerd wordt aan de hand van de ziektegeschiedenis van een ééneiige tweeling, waarvan slechtséén kind (bilateraal) aangedaan bleek te zijn.

Hoofdstuk 13 en 14

Verschillende aandoeningen, die niet gepaard gaan met storingen van de foetale vasculogenese van de retina, kunnen differentiaaldiagnostische problemen met DEVR opleveren.

Persisterend hyperplastisch primair glasvocht (PHPV) is een aandoening, waarvan het onzeker is met welke klinische manifestaties in de achterste glasvochtruimte deze zich kan presenteren. De veronderstelling, dat een congenital retinal fold doorgaans het gevolg is van persisteren van elementen van het primaire glasvocht is onjuist.

Zoals in onze studie is gebleken kan DEVR, indien de aandoening gepaard gaat met grote chorioretinale littekens, gemakkelijk aangezien worden voor de gevolgen van congenitale toxoplasmose.

Van de verkregen circulatiestoornissen van de perifere retina zijn slechts de ziekte van Eales en sikkelcelretinopathie kort vermeld. Het belangrijkste onderscheid van dergelijke occlusieve retinopathieën met aandoeningen die op een gestoorde vaatontwikkeling berusten, zoals DEVR, is het ontbreken van een regelmatige zoom van onvolgroeide perifere capillairen op het angiogram en de afwezigheid van duidelijke deformatie van het vaatbed van de retina.

Enkele andere verkregen aandoeningen, zoals toxocariasis, pars planitis en vasculaire afwijkingen van de retina bij myopie kunnen verward worden met de verschijnselen van DEVR.

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Van Nouhuys, C.E. Dominant exudative vitreoretinopathy and other vascular developmental disorders of the peripheral retina. Doc Ophthalmol 54, 1–415 (1982). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00681132

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