Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Microstructure, adhesion and growth kinetics of protective scales on metals and alloys

  • Published:
Oxidation of Metals Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Currentunderstanding of the complex interrelationships among growth kinetics, microstructure, and adhesion of protective Cr2O3 and Al2O3 scales is critically reviewed. Similarities and differences in the behavior of these two systems are highlighted. The morphology of the alloy-scale interface appears to be a critical factor. Recent ideas are advanced to interpret the effect of oxygen-active elements on the development of a tortuous interface conducive to improved scale tenacity.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Kofstad and K. P. Lillerud,J. Electrochem. Soc. 127, 2410 (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  2. D. P. Whittle and J. Stringer,Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London A Ser. 295, 309 (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  3. G. C. Wood and F. H. Stott, Proceedings of NACE Conference on “High Temperature Corrosion,” San Diego, California (March 1981).

  4. F. Elrefaie and W. W. Smeltzer,J. Electrochem. Soc. 128, 2237 (1981).

    Google Scholar 

  5. H. Davies and W. W. Smeltzer,J. Electrochem. Soc. 121, 543 (1971).

    Google Scholar 

  6. A. U. Seybolt,J. Electrochem. Soc. 107, 147 (1960).

    Google Scholar 

  7. M. A. J. Th. Laheij, F. J. J. Van Loo, and R. Metselaar,Oxid. Met. 14, 207 (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  8. L. M. Atlas and W. K. Sumida,J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 41, 157 (1958).

    Google Scholar 

  9. J. A. Imlach and F. F. Glasser,Trans. J. Br. Ceram. Soc. 70, 227 (1971).

    Google Scholar 

  10. F. S. Pettit,Trans. Metall. Soc. AIME 239, 1296 (1967).

    Google Scholar 

  11. N. Birks and H. Rickert,J. Inst. Met. 91, 308 (1963).

    Google Scholar 

  12. C. Wagner,J. Electrochem. Soc. 99, 369 (1952).

    Google Scholar 

  13. D. P. Whittle, G. C. Wood, D. J. Evans, and D. B. Scully,Acta Metall. 15, 1747 (1965).

    Google Scholar 

  14. C. S. Giggins and F. S. Pettit,Trans. Metall. Soc. AIME,245, 2509 (1969).

    Google Scholar 

  15. P. Moulin, F. Armanet, G. Beranger, and P. Lacombe,Mem. Sci. Rev. Metall. 74, 143 (1977).

    Google Scholar 

  16. C. Wagner,Corros. Sci. 5, 751 (1965).

    Google Scholar 

  17. J. Stringer, B. A. Wilcox, and R. I. Jaffee,Oxid. Met. 5, 11 (1972).

    Google Scholar 

  18. J. Stringer, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, California, private communication.

  19. C. S. Giggins and F. S. Pettit,Trans. Metal. Soc. AIME 245, 2495 (1969).

    Google Scholar 

  20. I. A. Kvernes,Oxid. Met. 6, 45 (1973).

    Google Scholar 

  21. H. M. Flower and B. A. Wilcox,Corros. Sci. 17, 243 (1977).

    Google Scholar 

  22. P. Moulin, A. M. Huntz, G. Beranger, and P. Lacombe,Scr. Metall. 11, 533 (1977).

    Google Scholar 

  23. M. J. Fleetwood,J. Inst. Met. 94, 218 (1966).

    Google Scholar 

  24. J. D. Whittenberger,Metall. Trans. 4, 715 (1973).

    Google Scholar 

  25. D. Delaunay, A. M. Huntz, and P. Lacombe,Scr. Metall. 13, 419 (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  26. A. Green, M. Eng. thesis, University of Liverpool, United Kingdom (1975).

    Google Scholar 

  27. G. W. Roper and D. P. Whittle,Met. Sci. J. 14, (1980).

  28. E. Scheil and E. H. Schulz,Arch. Eisenhuttenwes. 6, 155 (1932).

    Google Scholar 

  29. G. R. Wallwork and A. Z. Hed,Oxid. Met. 3, 171; 213; 229; 243 (1971).

    Google Scholar 

  30. W. H. Gitzen, ed.,Al2O3 as a Ceramic Material, American Ceramic Society Publication No. 4 (1970).

  31. F. S. Gallasso,Structure and Properties of Inorganic Solids, International Series in Solid State Physics, Vol. 7 (1970).

  32. F. A. Kröger, Proceedings of NACE Conference on “High Temperature Corrosion,” San Diego, California (March 1981).

  33. K. A. Hay, Report RD/L/R 1673, Central Electricity Research Laboratory, Leatherhead, England (1970).

    Google Scholar 

  34. R. Linder and Å. Åkertrøm,Z. Phys. Chem. N. F. 6, 162 (1956).

    Google Scholar 

  35. L. C. Walters and R. E. Grace,J. Appl. Phys. 36, 2331 (1965).

    Google Scholar 

  36. Y. Oishi and W. D. Kingery,J. Chem. Phys. 33, 480 (1960).

    Google Scholar 

  37. A. E. Paladino and W. D. Kingery,J. Chem. Phys. 37, 957 (1962).

    Google Scholar 

  38. K. P. R. Reddy and A. R. Cooper, Abstracts,Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull. 55, 402, (1976);57, 306 (1978); quoted in Ref. 41.

    Google Scholar 

  39. D. J. Reed and B. J. Wuensch,J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 63, 88 (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  40. W. C. Hagel and A. U. Seybolt,J. Electrochem. Soc. 108, 1146 (1961).

    Google Scholar 

  41. W. C. Hagel,J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 48, 70 (1965).

    Google Scholar 

  42. C. S. Griggins and F. S. Pettit,Metall. Trans. 2, 1071 (1971).

    Google Scholar 

  43. W. C. Hagel, P. L. Jorgensen, and D. S. Tomalin,J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 49, 23 (1966).

    Google Scholar 

  44. P. D. Ownby and G. E. Jungguist,J. Am. Ceram. 55, 433 (1971).

    Google Scholar 

  45. J. W. Halloran and H. U. Anderson,J. Am. Ceram. 57, 150 (1974).

    Google Scholar 

  46. J. M. Neve and R. L. Coble,J. Am. Ceram. 57, 274 (1974).

    Google Scholar 

  47. H. A. Wang and F. A. Kröger,J. Am. Ceram. 63, 613 (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  48. J. K. Tien and F. S. Pettit,Metall. Trans,3, 1587 (1972).

    Google Scholar 

  49. K. P. R. Reddy, J. L. Smialek, and A. R. Cooper, preprint.

  50. D. J. Young and M. Cohen,J. Electrochem. Soc. 124, 769; 775 (1977).

    Google Scholar 

  51. J. L. Smialek,Metall. Trans. 9A, 309 (1978).

    Google Scholar 

  52. H. Hindam and W. W. Smeltzer,J. Electrochem. Soc. 127, 1630 (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  53. E. J. Felten and F. S. Pettit,Oxid. Met. 10, 189 (1976).

    Google Scholar 

  54. J. S. Sheasby and D. B. Jory,Oxid. Met. 12, 527 (1978).

    Google Scholar 

  55. D. Caplan, A. Harvey, and M. Cohen,Corros. Sci. 3, 161 (1963).

    Google Scholar 

  56. D. Caplan and G. I. Sproule,Oxid. Met. 9, 459 (1975).

    Google Scholar 

  57. T. Homma, H. Hindam, Y. Pyun, and W. W. Smeltzer, in press.

  58. D. Mortimer and M. L. Post,Corros. Sci. 8, 499 (1968).

    Google Scholar 

  59. K. P. Lillerud and P. Kofstad,J. Electrochem. Soc 127, 2397 (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  60. F. A. Golightly, F. H. Stott, and G. C. Wood,Oxid. Met. 10, 163 (1976).

    Google Scholar 

  61. F. A. Golightly, F. H. Stott, and G. C. Wood,J. Electrochem. Soc. 126, 1035 (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  62. F. A. Golightly, G. C. Wood, and F. H. Stott,Oxid. Met. 14, 217 (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  63. D. G. Barnes, J. M. Calvert, K. A. Hay, and D. G. Lees,Philos. Mag. 28, 1303 (1973).

    Google Scholar 

  64. D. G. Lees and J. M. Calvert,Corros. Sci. 16, 767 (1976).

    Google Scholar 

  65. Y. Ikeda and K. Nii,Oxid. Met. 12, 487 (1978).

    Google Scholar 

  66. J. Stringer and I. G. Wright,Oxid. Met. 5, 59 (1972).

    Google Scholar 

  67. I. G. Wright and B. A. Wilcox,Oxid. Met. 8, 283 (1974).

    Google Scholar 

  68. O. T. Goncel, J. Stringer, and D. P. Whittle,Corros. Sci. 18, 701 (1978).

    Google Scholar 

  69. H. Hindam and D. P. Whittle, in press.

  70. C. S. Giggins and F. S. Pettit, Report ARL 75-0234, Pratt and Whitney Aircraft, Connecticut (1975).

    Google Scholar 

  71. J. D. Kuenzly and D. L. Douglass,Oxid. Met. 8, 139 (1974).

    Google Scholar 

  72. A. Kumar, M. Hasrallah, and D. L. Douglass,Oxid. Met. 8, 227 (1974).

    Google Scholar 

  73. J. Stringer, I. M. Allam, and D. P. Whittle,Thin Solid Films,45, 377 (1977).

    Google Scholar 

  74. I. M. Allam, D. P. Whittle, and J. Stringer,Oxid. Met. 12, 35 (1978).

    Google Scholar 

  75. I. M. Allam, Ph.D. thesis, University of Liverpool (1979).

  76. I. M. Allam, D. P. Whittle, and J. Stringer,Oxid. Met. 13, 381 (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  77. J. L. Smialek, NASA Technical Memorandum 81676, Cleveland, Ohio (1981).

  78. Hindam, “Microstructure and Growth of Al2O3 on Ni-Al Alloys,” Ph.D. thesis, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  79. H. Hindam and D. P. Whittle, in preparation.

  80. J. Stringer, A. Z. Hed, G. R. Wallwork, and B. A. Wilcox,Corros. Sci. 12, 625 (1972).

    Google Scholar 

  81. H. E. Evans, D. A. Hilton, R. A. Holm and S. J. Webster,Oxid. Met. 12, 473 (1978).

    Google Scholar 

  82. H. Hindam and D. P. Whittle,J. Electrochem. Soc. 129, 1147 (1982).

    Google Scholar 

  83. J. Markali, inMechanical Properties of Engineering Ceramics, W. W. Kriegel and H. Palmour, eds. (Interscience, New York, 1961).

    Google Scholar 

  84. D. J. Barber,Philos. Mag. 10, 75 (1964).

    Google Scholar 

  85. E. A. Gulbransen,Mem. Sci. Rev. Metall. 62, 253 (1965).

    Google Scholar 

  86. R. L. Tallman and E. A. Gulbransen,J. Electrochem. Soc. 114, 1227 (1967).

    Google Scholar 

  87. G. C. Wood and T. Hodgkiess,J. Electrochem. Soc. 113, 319 (1966).

    Google Scholar 

  88. G. C. Wood and D. P. Whittle,J. Electrochem. Soc. 115, 126; 133 (1968).

    Google Scholar 

  89. H. W. Paxton and E. J. Pasierb,Trans. AIME 218, 794 (1960).

    Google Scholar 

  90. D. M. Poole and P. M. Thomas,J. Inst. Met. 90, 228 (1962).

    Google Scholar 

  91. C. S. Tedmon, Jr.,J. Electrochem. Soc. 114, 788 (1967).

    Google Scholar 

  92. D. P. Whittle, D. J. Evans, D. B. Scully, and G. C. Wood,Acta Metall. 15, 1421; 1747 (1967).

    Google Scholar 

  93. H. E. Evans, D. A. Hilton, and R. A. Holm,Oxid. Met. 10, 149 (1976).

    Google Scholar 

  94. J. C. Killeen, A. F. Smith and R. K. Wild,Corros. Sci. 16, 551 (1976).

    Google Scholar 

  95. B. D. Bastow, D. P. Whittle, and G. C. Wood,Oxid. Met. 12, 413 (1978).

    Google Scholar 

  96. T. Hodgkiess, G. C. Wood, D. P. Whittle, and B. D. Bastow,Oxid. Met. 12, 439 (1978).

    Google Scholar 

  97. G. C. Wood and D. P. Whittle,Corros. Sci. 4, 263; 293 (1964).

    Google Scholar 

  98. G. C. Wood, T. Hodgkiess, and D. P. Whittle,Corros. Sci. 6, 129 (1966).

    Google Scholar 

  99. G. C. Wood and D. P. Whittle,Corros. Sci. 7, 763 (1967).

    Google Scholar 

  100. M. M. P. Janssen,Metall. Trans. 4, 1623 (1973).

    Google Scholar 

  101. F. N. Rhines and J. S. Wolf,Metall. Trans. 1, 1701 (1970).

    Google Scholar 

  102. V. R. Howes,Metall. Trans. 8, 221 (1968);Metall. Trans. 1, 99 (1970).

    Google Scholar 

  103. V. R. Howes,J. Electrochem. Soc. 116, 1286 (1969).

    Google Scholar 

  104. C. S. Giggins, B. H. Kear, F. S. Pettit, and J. K. Tien,Met. Trans. 5, 1685 (1974).

    Google Scholar 

  105. B. W. Dunnington, F. H. Beck, and M. G. Fontana,Corrosion 8, 2t (1952).

    Google Scholar 

  106. G. B. Gibbs and R. Hales,Corros. Sci. 17, 487 (1977).

    Google Scholar 

  107. G. B. Gibbs,Oxid. Met. 16, 147 (1981).

    Google Scholar 

  108. B. Lustman,Trans. Metall. Soc. AIME,188, 995 (1950).

    Google Scholar 

  109. J. E. Antill and K. A. Peakall,J. Iron Steel Inst. London 1136 (November 1967).

  110. C. E. Lowell, D. L. Deadmore, S. J. Grisaffe, and I. L. Drell, NASA TN D-6290, Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio, (April 1971).

    Google Scholar 

  111. H. Nagai, M. Okabayashi, and H. Mitani,Trans. Jpn. Inst. Met. 21, 341 (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  112. C. A. Barrett, A. S. Kahn, and C. E. Lowell,J. Electrochem. Soc. 128, 25 (1981).

    Google Scholar 

  113. P. Kofstad,Nonstoichiometry, Diffusion and Electrical Conductivity in Binary Metal Oxides (Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1972).

    Google Scholar 

  114. M. M. El-Aiat and F. A. Kröger,J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 65, 280 (1982).

    Google Scholar 

  115. J. C. Pivin, C. Roques-Carmes, P. Moulin, A. M. Huntz, and P. Lacombe,Mem. Sci. Rev. Metall. 75, 639 (1978).

    Google Scholar 

  116. E. Tsuzi,Metall. Trans. 11A, 1965 (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  117. M. Sakiyama, P. Tomaszewicz, and G. R. Wallwork,Oxid. Met. 13, 311 (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  118. J. C. Pivin, D. Delaunay, A. M. Huntz, and P. Lacombe,Corros. Sci. 20, 351 (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  119. J. Stringer,Metall. Rev. 11, 113 (1966).

    Google Scholar 

  120. H. Hindam and W. W. Smeltzer,J. Electrochem. Soc. 127, 1622 (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  121. H. Hindam and D. P. Whittle, in press.

  122. H. Hindam and D. P. Whittle, in preparation.

  123. C. A. Phalnikar, E. B. Evans, and W. M. Baldwin,J. Electrochem. Soc. 103, 429 (1956).

    Google Scholar 

  124. E. A. Gulbransen and K. F. Andrew,J. Electrochim. Soc. 104, 334 (1957).

    Google Scholar 

  125. W. C. Hagel,Trans. ASM 56, 583 (1963).

    Google Scholar 

  126. L. Cadiou and J. Paidassi,Mem. Sci. Rev. Metal. 66, 217 (1969).

    Google Scholar 

  127. C. S. Giggins and F. S. Pettit,Trans. Metall. Soc. AIME 245, 2495 (1969).

    Google Scholar 

  128. D. Caplan and M. Cohen,J. Electrochem. Soc. 108, 438 (1961).

    Google Scholar 

  129. H. C. Graham and H. H. Davis,J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 54, 89 (1971).

    Google Scholar 

  130. C. A. Stearns, F. J. Kohl, and G. C. Fryburg,J. Electrochem. Soc. 121, 945 (1974).

    Google Scholar 

  131. C. E. Lowell and W. A. Sanders,Oxid. Met. 5, 221 (1972).

    Google Scholar 

  132. D. R. Tenney, C. T. Young, and H. W. Herring,Metall. Trans. 5, 1001 (1974).

    Google Scholar 

  133. C. T. Young, D. R. Tenney, and H. W. Herring,Metall. Trans. 6A 2253 (1975).

    Google Scholar 

  134. G. C. Fryburg, F. J. Kohl, and C. A. Stearns,J. Electrochem. Soc. 121, 952 (1974).

    Google Scholar 

  135. Y. W. Kim and G. R. Belton,Metall. Trans. 5, 1811 (1974).

    Google Scholar 

  136. G. C. Fryburg, R. A. Miller, F. J. Kohl, and C. A. Stearns,J. Electrochem. Soc. 124, 1738 (1977).

    Google Scholar 

  137. G. M. Ecer and G. H. Meier,Oxid Met. 13, 119 (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  138. S. Espevik, R. A. Rapp, P. L. Daniel, and J. P. Hirth,Oxid. Met. 14, 85 (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  139. T. Hodgkiess, G. C. Wood, D. P. Whittle and B. D. Bastow,Oxid. Met. 14, 85 (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  140. P. Moulin, A. M. Huntz, and P. Lacombe,Acta Metall. 28, 745 (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  141. E. J. Felten,J. Electrochem. Soc. 108, 490 (1961).

    Google Scholar 

  142. J. M. Francis and W. H. Whitlow,Corros. Sci. 5, 701 (1965).

    Google Scholar 

  143. G. C. Wood and D. P. Whittle,Corros. Sci. 7, 763 (1967).

    Google Scholar 

  144. D. P. Whittle, M. E. El-Dahshan, and J. Stringer,Corros. Sci. 17, 879 (1977).

    Google Scholar 

  145. H. H. Davis, H. C. Graham, and I. A. Kvernes,Oxid. Met. 3, 431 (1971).

    Google Scholar 

  146. I. G. Wright, B. A. Wilcox, and R. I. Jaffee,Oxid. Met. 9, 275 (1975).

    Google Scholar 

  147. H. T. Michels,Metall. Trans. 7A, 379 (1976).

    Google Scholar 

  148. G. C. Wood and J. Boustead,Corros. Sci. 8, 719 (1968).

    Google Scholar 

  149. O. T. Goncel, D. P. Whittle, and J. Stringer,Oxid. Met. 15, 287 (1981).

    Google Scholar 

  150. H. Nagai, Y. Takebayashi, and H. Mitani,Metall. Trans. 12A, 435 (1981).

    Google Scholar 

  151. T. Amano, S. Yajima and Y. Saito,Trans. Jpn. Inst. Met. 20, 431 (1979).

    Google Scholar 

  152. F. S. Pettit,Trans. Metall. Soc. AIME 239, 1296 (1967).

    Google Scholar 

  153. C. S. Giggins and F. S. Pettit,J. Electrochem. Soc. 118, 1782 (1971).

    Google Scholar 

  154. A. S. Kahn, C. E. Lowell, and C. A. Barrett,J. Electrochem. Soc. 127, 671 (1980).

    Google Scholar 

  155. C. S. Wukusick and J. F. Collins,Mater. Res. Stand. 633 (1964).

  156. C. Wagner,Z. Phys. Chem. B21, 25 (1933); inAtom-Movements, (ASM, Ohio, 1951)., p. 153.

    Google Scholar 

  157. W. W. Smeltzer and D. J. Young,Prog. Solid State Chem. 10, Part(1), 17 (1975).

    Google Scholar 

  158. J. F. Elliot and M. Bleiser, edsThermochemistry for Steel Making (Addison-Wesley, New York, 1960).

    Google Scholar 

  159. K. P. R. Reddy, Ph.D. thesis, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio (1979), quoted in Ref. 77.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Author notes

  1. H. Hindam

    Present address: Physical Metallurgy Research Laboratories, CANMET, K1AOG1, Ottawa, Ontario

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Molecular and Materials Research Division, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory and Department of Materials Science and Mineral Engineering, University of California, 94720, Berkeley, California

    H. Hindam

  2. Department of Materials Science and Mineral Engineering, University of California, 91720, Berkeley, California

    D. P. Whittle

Authors
  1. H. Hindam
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. D. P. Whittle
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Additional information

This work was supported by the Director, Office of Energy Research, Office of Basic Energy Sciences, Materials Sciences Division of the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC03-76SF00098.

Deceased.

on leave to Industrial Materials Research Institute, NRC, Montreal, Quebec, H4C 2K3 Canada.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Hindam, H., Whittle, D.P. Microstructure, adhesion and growth kinetics of protective scales on metals and alloys. Oxid Met 18, 245–284 (1982). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00656571

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00656571

Key words

Search

Navigation