Summary
Some bioenergetic parameters of Caenorhabditis briggsae, a saprophagous nematode, were analysed under different conditions of food availability. Respiration (R) and production rates (P) of experimental animals grown on media of defined bacterial concentrations were measured throughout the life cycle of the species at 20°C. Energetics are expressed in the form of instantaneous rates and as cumulative budgets.
-
1.
Food dependence: The food threshold of the species is defined as A (assimilation)=R, P=zero. The respiratory level of the species is generally high compared to other nematode species and increases only weakly with food availability. Starvation (food densities below threshold) is expressed in a strong reduction in metabolism within 48 h. The food dependence of biosynthetic processes (body growth and egg production) follows a hyperbolic form, which can be described by the Michaelis-Menten function. The relationship P:R changes drastically with availability of food, e.g. the production efficiency for the period of maximal reproduction is 0% at 2·108 cells ml-1 (threshold) and 86% at 1010 cells ml-1.
-
2.
R and P follow different forms of size dependence in the course of the life cycle. The relationship between R and body weight (W) can be described by an allometric function, e.g. at high food density, R=2.8 W 0.75 (R in nl O2 ind-1 h-1; W in μg fresh weight). Weight-specific production rates vary considerably during the life cycle: ±constant in the early larval phase (exponential growth, “g”=1.44 day-1 at 1010 cells ml-1); decreasing in the latter larval phase; peak values shortly after onset of reproduction as a result of both body growth and egg production.
-
3.
Differences in resource allocation at varying food densities are also manifest in cumulative energy budgets, e.g. higher R cum is necessary to achieve the same body size at lower food densities. Size at maturation and egg size are reduced to a different degree at low food densities, indicating bioenergetical constraint and trade-off between metabolic processes.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Atkinson HJ (1980) Respiration of nematodes. In: Zuckerman BM (ed) Nematodes as biological models. Academic Press, New York, pp 101–142
Bertalanffy L von (1957) Wachstum. In: Kükenthals Handb d Zoologie, 8/4. De Gruyter & Co, Berlin, 68 pp
Bertalanffy L von (1964) Basic concepts in quantitative biology of metabolism. Helgol Wiss Meeresunters 9:5–38
Bolla R (1980) Nematode energy metabolism. In: Zuckerman BM (ed) Nematodes as biological models. Academic Press, New York, pp 165–192
Brett JR, Groves TDD (1979) Physiological energetics. In: Hoar WS, Randall DJ, Brett JR (eds) Fish physiology, vol 8. Academic Press, New York, pp 280–352
Brett JR, Shelbourn JE (1975) Growth rate of young sockeye salmon, Oncorhynchus nerka, in relation to fish size and ration level. J Fish Res Bd Can 32:2103–2110
Brody S (1945) Bioenergetics and growth. Reinhold, New York, 1023 pp
Bryant V (1973) Growth and respiration throughout the life-cycle of Nematospiroides dubius Baylis, 1926 (Nematoda: Heligmosomidae). The freeliving stages. Parasitology 67:245–251
Calow P (1979) The cost of reproduction — a physiological approach. Biol Rev 54:23–40
Chapman DG (1961) Statistical problems in dynamics of exploited fisheries population. Proc. Berkeley Symp Math Statist Probab 4:153–168
Cooper AF, Van Gundy SD (1970) Metabolism of glycogen and neutral lipid by Aphelenchus avenae and Caenorhabditis sp. in aerobic, microaerobic and anaerobic environments. J Nemat 2:305–315
Conover JR (1966) Factors affecting the assimilation of organic matter and the question of superfluous feeding. Limnol Oceanogr 11:346–354
Curds CR (1975) Protozoa. In: Curds CR, Hawkes HA (eds) Ecological aspects of used-water treatment. Academic Press, New York, pp 203–268
Dagg MJ (1976) Complete carbon and nitrogen budgets for the carnivorous amphipod, Calliopius laeviusculus (Kroyer). Int Rev Ges Hydrobiol 61:297–357
Duncan A, Klekowski RZ (1975) Parameters of an energy budget. In: Grodzinski W, Klekowski RZ, Duncan A (eds) Methods for ecological bioenergetics. Blackwell, Oxford, pp 97–147
Duncan A, Schiemer F, Klekowski RZ (1974) A preliminary study of feeding rates on bacterial food by adult females of a benthic nematode, Plectus palustris De Man 1880. Pol Arch Hydrobiol 21, 237–255
Elliott JM (1975) The growth rate of brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) fed on reduced rations. J Anim Ecol 44:823–842
Elliott JM, Davidson W (1975) Energy equivalents of oxygen consumption in animal energetics. Oecologia (Berl) 19:195–201
Evans AAF, Womersley C (1980) Longevity and survival in nematodes: models and mechanisms. In: Zuckerman BM (ed) Nematodes as biological models, vol 2. Academic Press, New York, pp 193–211
Fenchel T (1972) Aspects of decomposer food chains in marine benthos. Verh Dtsch Zool Ges 65:14–22
Fenchel T (1974) Intrinsic rate of natural increase: the relationship with body size. Oecologia (Berl) 14:317–326
Fenchel T, Harrison P (1976) The significance of bacterial grazing and mineral cycling for the decomposition of particulate detritus. In: Anderson JM, Macfadyen A (eds) The role of terrestrial and aquatic organisms in decomposition processes. Blackwell, Oxford, p 285–299
Fischer Z (1972) The energy budget of Lestes sponsa (Hans.) during its larval development. Pol Arch Hydrobiol 19:215–222
Frost BW (1972) Effects of size and concentrations of food particles on the feeding behaviour of the marine planktonic copepod Calanus pacificus. Limnol Oceanogr 17:805–815
Gaudy R (1974) Feeding four species of pelagic copepods under experimental conditions. Marine Biol 25:125–141
Gerlach SA (1978) Food chain relationships in subtidal silty sand marine sediments and the role of meiofauna in stimulating bacterial productivity. Oecologia (Berl) 33:55–69
Hansen EL, Buecher Jr, EJ, Yarwood EA (1964) Development and maturation of Caenorhabditis briggsae in response to growth factor. Nematologica 10:623–630
Hargrave BT (1970) The utilization of benthic microflora by Hyalella azteca (Amphipoda). J Animal Ecol 39:427–437
Hieb WF, Rothstein M (1968) Sterol requirement for reproduction of a free-living nematode. Science 160:778–780
Hrbáčková M, Hrbáček J (1978) The growth rate of Daphnia pulex and Daphnia pulicaria (Crustacea-Cladocera) at different food levels. Věst Čs Zool 42:115–127
Ivlev VS (1966) Elements of physiological hydrobiology. In: Fizjologija morskih zivotnyh. Izdat “Navka, Moskva”
Jennings JB, Calow P (1975) The relationship between high fecundity and the evolution of entoparasitism. Oecologia (Berl) 21:109–115
Johannes RE (1965) The influence of marine protozoa on nutrient regeneration. Limnol Oceanogr 12:189–195
Kersting K, van der Leeuw-Leegwater C (1976) Effect of food concentration on the respiration rate of Daphnia magna. Hydrobiologia 51:137–142
Klekowski RZ (1971) Cartesian diver microrespirometry for aquatic animals. Pol Arch Hydrobiol 18:93–114
Klekowski RZ, Duncan A (1975) Physiological approach to ecological energetics. In: Grodzinski W, Klekowski RZ, Duncan A (eds) Methods for ecological bioenergetics. Blackwell, Oxford, pp 15–64
Klekowski RZ, Fischer Z (1975) Review of studies on ecological bioenergetics of aquatic animals. Pol Arch Hydrobiol 22:345–373
Klekowski RZ, Prus T, Zyromska-Rudzka H (1967) Elements of energy budget or Tribolium castaneum (Hbst) in its developmental cycle. In: Petrusewicz K (ed) Secondary productivity of terrestrial ecosystems, vol 2. PWN, Warszawa-Krakow, pp 859–897
Klekowski RZ, Schiemer F, Duncan A (1979) A bioenergetic study of a benthic nematode, Plectus palustris de Man 1880, throughout its life cycle. I. The respiratory metabolism at different densities of bacterial food. Oecologia (Berl) 44:119–124
Kubitschek HE (1969) Counting and sizing micro-organisms with the coulter counter. Methods in microbiology. Academic Press, New York, pp 593–610
Lampert W (1977) Studies on the carbon balance of Daphnia pulex De Geer as related to environmental conditions. III. Production and production efficiency. Arch Hydrobiol Suppl 48:336–360
LaRow EJ, Wilkinson JW, Kumar KD (1975) The effect of food concentration and temperature on respiration and excretion in herbivorous zooplankton. Verh Internat Verein Limnol 19:966–973
Lee JJ (1980a) A conceptual model of marine detrital decomposition and the organisms associated with the process. In: Droop M, Jannasch HW (eds) Advances in aquatic microbiology, vol 2. Academic Press, London, pp 257–291
Lee JJ (1980b) Informational energy flow as an aspect of protozoan nutrition. J Protozool 27:5–9
Mercer EK, Cairns EJ (1973) Food consumption of the free-living aquatic nematode Pelodera chitwoodi. J Nemat 5:201–208
Newell R (1965) The role of detritus in the nutrition of two marine deposit feeders, the prosobranch Hydrobia ulvae and the bivalve Macoma balthica. Proc Zool Soc Lond 144:25–45
Nicholas WL, Grassia A, Viswanathan S (1973) The efficiency with which Caenorhabditis briggsae (Rhabditinae) feeds on the bacterium, Escherichia coli. Nematologica 19:411–420
Nicholas WI, Stewart AC (1978) The calorific value of Caenorhabditis elegans (Rhabditidae). Nematologica 24:40–50
Nigon V (1949) Les modalités de la reproduction et le determinisme du sexe chez quelques Nematodes libres. Ann Sci Nat Zool Biol Animale ser 11:1–132
Nigon V, Dougherty EC (1949) Reproductive patterns and attempts at reciprocal crossing of Rhabditis elegans Maupas, 1900, and Rhabditis briggsae Dougherty and Nigon, 1949 (Nematoda: Rhabditidae). J Exp Zool 112:485–503
Overgaard-Nielsen C (1949) Studies on the soil microfauna II. The soil inhabiting nematodes. Nat Jutland 2:1–131
Pilarska J (1977a) Eco-physiological studies on Brachionus rubens Ehrbg. (Rotatoria). II. Production and respiration. Pol Arch Hydrobiol 24:329–341
Proper G, Garver JC (1966) Mass culture of the protozoa Colpoda steini. Biotechnol Bioeng 8:287–296
Richards FJ (1959) A flexible growth function for empirical use. J exp Bot 10:290–300
Richman S (1958) The transformation of energy by Daphnia pulex. Ecol Monogr 28:273–291
Ricklefs RE (1973) Ecology. Chiron Press, New York, pp 861
Rogers WP (1948) The respiratory metabolism of parasitic nematodes. Parasitology 39:105–109
Rohde R (1960) The influence of carbon dioxide on respiration of certain plant-parasitic nematodes. Proc Helminthol Soc Wash 27:160–164
Rothstein M (1977) Recent developments in the age related enzymes: a review. Mech Ageing Dev 6:241–257
Santmeyer PH (1956) Studies on the metabolism of Panagrellus redivivus (Nematoda, Cephalobidae). Proc Helminth Soc Wash 23:30–36
Schiemer F (1975) Nematoda. In: Curds CR, Hawkes HA (eds) Ecological aspects of used-water treatment, vol 1. Academic Press, New York, pp 269–288
Schiemer F (1982a) Food dependence and energetics of free-living nematodes. II. Life history parameters of Caenorhabditis briggsae at different levels of food supply. Oecologia (Berl) 54:122–128
Schiemer F (1982b) Food dependence and energetics of free-living nematodes. III. Comparative aspects with special consideration of two bacterivorous species, Caenorhabditis briggsae and Plectus palustris
Schiemer F, Duncan A (1974) The oxygen consumption of a freshwater benthic nematode, Tobrilus gracilis (Bastian). Oecologia (Berl) 15:121–126
Schiemer F, Duncan A, Klekowski RZ (1980) A bioenergetic study of a benthic nematode, Plectus palustris de Man 1880, throughout its life cycle. II. Growth, fecundity and energy budgets at different densities of bacterial food and general ecological considerations. Oecologia (Berl) 44:205–212
Schindler DW (1968) Feeding, assimilation and respiration of Daphnia magna under various environmental conditions and their relation to production estimates. J Anim Ecol 37:369–385
Shushkina EA, Anisimov SI, Klekowski RZ (1968) Calculation of production efficiency in planctonic copepods. Pol Arch Hydrobiol 15:251–261
Snedecor GW, Cochran WG (1967) Statistical methods. Ames, Iowa, pp 593
Southwood TRE (1976) Bionomic strategies and population parameters. In: May RM (ed) Theoretical ecology, principles and applications. W.B. Saunders Comp., New York, pp 26–48
Stearns SC (1976) Life history tactics: a review of the ideas. Q Rev Biol 25:3–47
Sutcliffe DW, Carrick TR, Willoughby LG (1981) Effects of diet, body size, age and temperature on growth rates in the amphipod Gammarus pulex. Freshwater Biology 11:183–214
Taghon GL, Self RFL, Jumars PA (1978) Predicting particle selection by deposit feeders: a model and its implications. Limnol Oceanogr 23:752–759
Taylor WD (1978) Growth responses of ciliate protozoa to the abundance of their bacterial prey. Microbiol Ecology 4:207–214
Thompson R, Bayne BL (1974) The relationship between growth, metabolism and food in the mussel Mytilus edulis. Marine Biology 27:317–326
Tietjen JH (1980) Microbial-meiofaunal interrelationships. Microbiology 1980, 335–338
Vanfleteren JR (1978) Axenic culture of free-living, plant-parasitic and insect-parastic nematodes. Ann Rev Phytopathol 16:131–157
Van Gundy SD, Bird AF, Wallace HR (1967) Ageing and starvation in the larvae of Meloidogyne javanica and Tylenchus semipenetrans. Phytopathology 57:559–571
Vidal J (1980a) Physioecology of zooplankton. I. Effects of phytoplankton concentration, temperature and body size on the growth rate of Calanus pacificus and Pseudocalanus sp. Marine Biology 56:111–134
Vidal J (1980b) Physioecology of zooplankton. III. Effects of phytoplankton concentration, temperature and body size on the metabolic rate of Calanus pacificus. Marine Biology 56:195–202
Vidal J (1980c) Physioecology of zooplankton. IV. Effects of phytoplankton concentration, temperature and body size on the net production efficiency of Calanus pacificus. Marine Biology 56:235–248
Zaika VE (1973) Specific production of aquatic invertebrates. John Wiley & Sons, New York - Toronto, pp 154
Zeuthen E (1950) Cartesian diver respirometer. Biol Bull 98:139–143
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Schiemer, F. Food dependence and energetics of freeliving nematodes. Oecologia 54, 108–121 (1982). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00541117
Received:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00541117