Summary
The introvert, mouth cone, and nervous system of Echinoderes capitatus were examined by transmission and scanning electron microscopy. The introvert bears seven rings of primarily quincunxial sensory scalids, including type 1 and 2 spinoscalids as well as trichoscalids; the latter two types are additionally provided with glandular cells. The mouth cone bears one ring of decamerous sensory oral styles and three rings of quincunxial sensory pharyngeal styles. The intra- to basiepithelial, bilateral nervous system consists of a circumentric nerve ring in the introvert, a terminal and proximal nerve ring in the mouth cone, a ventral chain of ganglia, one in each trunk zonite, and a caudal ganglion. The introvert, the neck, and the trunk zonites are innervated from the forebrain; the mouth cone and the pharyngeal bulb are innervated from the hindbrain. The monophyly of the Kinorhyncha is based upon the following autapomorphic characters: (1) a mouth cone, (2) a neck with 16 placids, (3) a trunk with 11 zonites, (4) scalids of three types: type 1 and type 2 spinoscalids, and trichoscalids, (5) an anteriormost ring of ten type 1 spinoscalids (sensory organs divided into a basal and a terminal part), (6) a posteriormost ring of 14 trichoscalids (glandular sensory organs which are undivided), (7) rings in between the anteriormost and posteriormost are type 2 spinoscalids (glandular sensory organs divided into a basal and a terminal part), (8) a mouth cone with a terminal and a proximal nerve ring, (9) nine sensory oral styles with decamerous symmetry (the dorsal style is missing) and (10) three rings of sensory pharyngeal styles with, from anterior to posterior, ten, five, and five styles with quincunxial arrangement. The following characters are assumed to be autapomorphic for the taxon Nematoda+Gastrotricha+Kinorhyncha+Loricifera+Priapulida: (1) a basiepithelial circumentric brain and (2) a neuropileous nerve ring in a subterminal position. The following characters are assumed to be autapomorphic for the taxon Kinorhyncha+Loricifera+Priapulida: (1) a neuropileous nerve ring in a terminal position, (2) an introvert with scalids, (3) an eversible foregut and (4) tanycytes.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adrianov AV, Malakhov VV (1990) Sense organs of Kinorhyncha using the example of the order Homalorhagida (Cephalorhyncha, Kinorhyncha) (in Russian). Zool Zh 9:1–14
Apel W (1885) Beitrag zur Anatomie und Histologie des Priapulus caudatus (Lam.) und des Halicryptus spinulosus (v. Sieb.). Z Wiss Zool 42:459–529
Ax P (1984) Das phylogenetische System. Systematisierung der lebenden Natur aufgrund ihrer Phylogenese. Fischer, Stuttgart New York, pp 349
Brown R (1989) Morphology and ultrastructure of the sensory appendages of a kinorhynch introvert. Zool Scr 18:471–482
Bullock TH, Horridge GA (1965) Structure and function of the nervous system of invertebrates (2 vols). Freeman, San Francisco, vol 1: 789 pp, vol 2: 1719 pp
Calloway CB (1975) Morphology of the introvert and associated structures of the priapulid Tubiluchus corallicola from Bermuda. Mar Biol 31:161–174
Candia Carnevali MD, Ferraguti M (1979) Structure and ultra-structure of muscles in the priapulid Halicryptus spinulosus: functional and phylogenetic remarks. J Mar Biol Assoc UK 59:737–744
Chitwood BG, Chitwood MB (1974) Introduction to nematology. University Park Press, Baltimore, pp 334
Clark RB (1964) Dynamics in metazoan evolution. Claredon Press, Oxford, pp 313
Clark RB (1979) Radiation of the metazoa. In: House MR (ed) The origins of major invertebrate groups, Systematic association special volume 12. Academic Press, London New York, pp 55–102
Clèment P (1985) The relationships of rotifers. In: Conway Morris S, George JD, Gibson R, Platt HM (eds) The origin and relationships of lower invertebrates. The systematic association special volume 28. Claredon Press, Oxford, pp 224–247
Clèment P, Wurdak E (1991) Rotifera. In: Harrison FW (ed) Microscopic anatomy of invertebrates vol 4: Aschelminthes. Wiley and Sons, New York, pp 219–297
Conway Morris S (1977) Fossil priapulid worms. Spec Pap Palacont 20:1–95
Crompton DWT, Nickol BB (1985) Biology of the Acanthocephala. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge London New York, pp 519
Elder HY, Hunter RD (1980) Burrowing of Priapulus caudatus (Vermes) and the significance of the direct peristalitic wave. J Zool Lond 191:333–351
Eldredge N, Cracraft J (1980) Phylogenetic patterns and the evolutionary process. Methods and theory in comparative biology. Columbia University Press, New York, pp 349
Friedrich H, Langeloh H-P (1936) Untersuchungen zur Physiologie der Bewegung und des Hautmuskelschlauches bei Halicryptus spinulosus and Priapulus caudatus. Biol Zbl 56:249–260
Gerlach SA (1956) Über einen aberranten Vertreter der Kinorhynchen aus dem Küstengrundwasser. Kieler Meeresforsch 12:120–124
Goldschmidt R (1908) Das Nervensystem von Ascaris lumbricoides und megalocephela I. Z Wiss Zool 90:73–136
Goldschmidt R (1909) Das Nervensystem von Ascaris lumbricoides und megalocephela II. Z Wiss Zool 92:306–357
Hammersten O (1913) Beiträge zur Entwicklung von Halicryptus spinulosus (von Siebold). Zool Anz 41:501–505
Hammersten O (1915) Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte von Halicryptus spinulosus (von Siebold). Z Wiss Zool 112:527–571
Hammond RA (1970) The surface of Priapulus caudatus (Lamarck, 1816) Nemathelminthes, Priapulida. Z Morphol Tiere 68:255–268
Higgins RP (1967) The Kinorhyncha of New Caledonia. In: Expedition francaise sur récifs coralliens de la Nouvelle-Caledonia 2, edition de la fondation Singer-Polignac, Paris, pp 75–90
Higgins RP (1968) Taxonomy and postembryonic development of the Cryptorhagae, a new suborder for the mesopsammic kinorhynch genus Cateria. Trans Am Microsc Soc 78:21–39
Higgins RP (1969a) Indian Ocean Kinorhyncha, 1: Condyloderes and Sphenoderes, new cyclorhagid genera. Smithson Contrib Zool 14:1–13
Higgins RP (1969b) Indian Ocean Kinorhyncha, 2: Neocentrophyidae, a new homalorhagid family. Proc Biol Soc Wash 82:113–128
Higgins RP (1981) Kinorhyncha. In: Parker SP (ed) Synopsis and classification of living organisms, vol 1. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 873–877
Higgins RP (1983) The Atlantic Barriere reef ecosystem at Carrie Bow Cay, Belize. II: Kinorhyncha. Smithson Contrib Mar Sci 18:1–131
Higgins RP (1990) Zelinkaderidae, a new family of cyclorhagid Kinorhyncha. Smithson Contrib Zool 500:1–26
Higgins RP, Kristensen RM (1986) New Loricifera from Southeastern United States coastal waters. Smithson Contrib Zool 438:1–70
Higgins RP, Shirayama Y (1990) Dracoderidae, a new family of cyclorhagid Kinorhyncha from the inland sea of Japan. Zool Sci 7:939–946
Higgins RP, Storch V (1989) Ultrastructural observations of the larva of Tubiluchus corallicola (Priapulida). Helgo Meeresunters 43:1–11
Higgins RP, Storch V (1991) Evidence for direct development in Meiopriapulus fijiensis (Priapulida). Trans Am Microsc Soc 110/1: 37–46
Hyman LH (1951) The Invertebrates: Acanthocephala, Aschelminthes, and Ectoprocta. The pseudocoelomate Bilateria. McGraw-Hill, New York Toronto London, pp 572
Johnston TH (1938) Report on the Echinoderida. Reports on the Australian Antarctic expedition, 1911–1914 (C). Paisley, Sydney New South Wales Australia, 10/7:1–13
Kirsteuer E (1976) Notes on adult morphology and larval development of Tubiluchus corallicola (Priapulida), based on in vivo and scanning electron, microscopic examinations of specimens from Bermuda. Zool Scr 5:239–255
Kirsteuer E, Rüitzler K (1973) Additional notes on Tubiluchus corallicola (Priapulida), based on scanning electron microscope observations. Mar Biol 20:78–87
Kirsteuer E, van der Land J (1970) Some notes on Tubiluchus corallicola (Priapulida) from Barbados, West Indies. Mar Biol 7:230–238
Kristensen RM (1983) Loricifera, a new phylum with Aschelminthes characters from the meiobenthos. Z Zool Syst Evolutionsforsch 21:163–180
Kristensen RM (1991a) Loricifera. In: Harrison FW (ed) Microscopic anatomy of invertebrates, vol 4: Aschelminthes. Wiley and Sons, New York, pp 351–375
Kristensen RM (1991b) Loricifera — a general biological and phylogenetic overview. Verh Dtsch Zool Ges 84:231–246
Kristensen RM, Hay-Schmidt A (1989) Protonephridia of the Arctic Kinorhynch Echinoderes aquilonius (Cyclorhagida, Echinoderidae). Acta Zool (Stockholm) 70:13–27
Kristensen RM, Higgins RP (1991) Kinorhyncha. In: Harrison FW (ed) Microscopic anatomy of invertebrates, vol 4: Aschelminthes. Wiley and Sons, New York, pp 377–404
Kristensen RM, Shirayama Y (1988) Pliciloricus hadalis (Pliciloricidae), a new loriciferan species collected from the Izu-Ogasawara Trench, Western Pacific. Zool Sci 5:875–881
Land J van der (1968) A new aschelminth, probably related to the Priapulida. Zool Meded 42:237–250
Land J van der (1970) Systematics, zoogeography, and ecology of the Priapulida. Zool Verhandl Leiden 12:1–118
Land J van der, Nørrevang A (1985) Affinities and intraphyletic relationships of the Priapulida. In: Conway Morris S, George JD, Gibson R, Platt HM (eds) The origin and relationships of lower invertebrates. The systematic association special vol. 28. Claredon Press, Oxford, pp 261–273
Lang K (1949) Reports of the Lund University Chile Expedition 1948–49: Echinoderida. K Fysiogr Sällsk Lund Förh 64:1–8
Lang K (1963) The relation between Kinorhyncha and Priapulida and their connection with the Aschelminthes. In: Dougherty EC (ed). The lower Metazoa, comparative biology and phylogeny. University of California Press, Berkeley pp 256–262
Lorenzen S (1985) Phylogenetic aspects of pseudocoelomate evolution. In: Conway Morris S, George JD, Gibson R, Platt HM (eds) The origin and relationships of lower invertebrates. The systematic association special vol 28. Claredon Press, Oxford, pp 210–223
Malakhov VV (1980) Cephalorhyncha, a new type of animal kingdom uniting Priapulida, Kinorhyncha, Gordiacea, and a system of aschelminthes worms (in Russian). Zool Zh 59:485–499
Mattisson A, Nilsson S, Fänge R (1974) Light microscopical and ultrastructural organization of muscles of Priapulus caudatus (Priapulida) and their responses to drugs, with phylogenetic remarks. Zool Scr 3:209–218
Merriman JA, Corwin HO (1973) An electron microscopical examination of Echinoders dujardini Claparède (Kinorhyncha). Z Morphol Tiere 76:227–242
Moore PG (1973) Campyloderes macquariae Johnston, 1938 (Kinorhyncha: Cyclorhagida) from the northern hemispere. J Nat Hist 7:341–353
Moritz K, Storch V (1972a) Zur Feinstruktur des Integumentes von Trachydemus giganteus (Kinorhyncha). Z Morphol Tiere 71:189–202
Moritz K, Storch V (1972b) Über den ultrastrukturellen Bau der Skaliden von Trachydemus giganteus (Kinorhyncha). Mar Biol 16:81–89
Morse MP (1981) Meiopriapulus fijiensis n. gen., n. sp.: an interstitial priapulid from coarse sand in Fiji. Trans Am Microsc Soc 100:239–252
Nebelsick M (1990) Antygomonas incomitata gen. et sp.n. (Cyclorhagida, Kinorhyncha) and its phylogenetic relationships. Zool Scr 19/2:143–152
Nebelsick M (1992a) Sensory spots of Echinoderes capitatus (Kinorhyncha, Cyclorhagida). Acta Zool (Stockholm) 73/3:185–195
Nebelsick M (1992b) Ultrastructural investigations of three taxonomic characters in the trunk region of Echinoderes capitatus (Kinorhyncha, Cyclorhagida). Zool Scr 21/4:335–345
Por FD, Bromley HJ (1974) Morphology and anatomy of Maccabeus tentaculatus (Priapulida: Seticoronaria). J Zool Lond 173:173–197
Purasjoki KJ (1944) Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Entwicklung und Ökologie der Halicrypus spinulosus-Larve (Priapulida). Ann Soc Zool Bot Fenn 9/6:1–14
Rauter M (1930) Fünfte Klasse des Cladus Nemathelminthes Nematomorpha=Saitenwürmer. In: Kükenthal W, Krumbach T (eds) Handbuch der zoologie 2. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, pp 404–448
Rehkämper G, Storch V, Alberti G, Welsch U, (1989) On the fine structure of the nervous system of Tubiluchus philippinensis (Tubiluchidae, Priapulida). Acta Zool (Stockholm) 70/2:111–120
Remane A (1929) Dritte Klasse des Cladus Nemathelminthes Kinorhyncha=Echinodera. In: Kükenthal W, Krumbach T (eds) Handbuch der zoologie 2. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, pp 187–248
Remane A (1936) Gastrotricha und Kinorhyncha. In: Bronn HG (ed) Klassen und Ordnungen des Tierreichs (sec 2, pt 1, no 2) 4. Akad Verlagsges, Leipzig, pp 243–372
Rieman F (1972) Kinonchulus sattleri n.g.n.sp. (Enoplida, Tripyloidea), an aberrant freeliving nematode from the lower Amazonas. Veröff Inst Meeresforsch Bremerhaven 13:317–326
Salvini-Plawen L v (1974) Zur Morphologie und Systematik der Priapulida: Chaetostephanus praeposteriens, der Vertreter einer neuen Ordnung Seticoronaria. Z Zool Syst Evolutionsforsch 12:31–54
Scharff R (1885) On the skin and nervous system of Priapulus and Halicryptus. Q J Microsc Sci 25:193–213
Schepotieff A (1908) Über den feineren Bau der Gordiuslarven. Z Wiss Zool 89:230–241
Storch V (1984) Minor Pseudocoelomates. In: Bereiter-Hahn J, Matoltsy AG, Sylvia Richards K (eds) Biology of the integument 1. Invertebrates. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 242–268
Storch V, Higgins RP (1991) Scanning and transmission electron microscopic observations on the larvae of Halicryptus spinulosus (Priapulida). J Morphol 210:175–194
Storch V, Higgins RP, Morse MP (1989) Internal anatomy of Meiopriapulus fijiensis (Priapulida). Trans Am Microsc Soc 108/3:245–261
Storch V, Higgins RP, Rumohr H (1990) Ultrastructure of introvert and pharynx of Halicryptus spinulosus (Priapulida). J Morphol 206:163–171
Teuchert G (1977) The ultrastructure of the marine gastrotrich Turbanella cornuta Remane (Macrodasyoidea) and its functional and phylogenetic importance. Zoomorphologie 88:189–246
Trueman ER (1968) Burrowing habit and the early evolution of body cavities. Nature (Lond) 218:96–98
Ware RW, Clark C, Crossland K, Russell RL (1975) The nerve ring of the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans. J Comp Neurol 162:71–110
Welsch U, storch V (1973) Einführung in die Cytologie und Histologie der Tiere. Fischer, Stuttgart, 244 pp
White JG, Southgate E, Thomson JN, Brenner FRS (1976) The structure of the ventral nerve chord of Caenorhabditis elegans. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B 275:327–348
White JG, Southgate JN, Thomson JN, Brenner FRS (1986) The structure of the nervous system of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B 314:1–340
Whitefield PJ (1984) Acanthocephala In: Bereiter-Hahn J, Matoltsy AG, Sylvia Richards K (eds) Biology of the integument 1. Invertebrates. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 234–241
Zelinka K (1928) Monography of Echinodera. Engelmann, Leipzig, 360 pp
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
The unpublished doctoral thesis of B. Neuhaus [1991 Zur Ultrastruktur, Postembryonalentwicklung und phylogenetischen Verwandtschaft der Kinorhyncha. PhD thesis. University of Götingen, Germany] was finished simultaneously with the completion of this study.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Nebelsick, M. Introvert, mouth cone, and nervous system of Echinoderes capitatus (Kinorhyncha, Cyclorhagida) and implications for the phylogenetic relationships of Kinorhyncha. Zoomorphology 113, 211–232 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00403313
Received:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00403313